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Building Structures (Structural Systems, Loads, Internal Forces, RC Structures & Foundations)

Rebar Worker Certificate 鉄筋技能士 (Grade 1/2 theory) · 技能検定「鉄筋施工」1級・2級 学科 · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Classification of Building Structures and Their Characteristics

Building structural frames are classified by primary material into timber structures (W), steel structures (S), reinforced concrete structures (RC), and steel-reinforced concrete structures (SRC).

RC structures are monolithic systems combining reinforcing bars and concrete, offering excellent fire resistance, durability, sound insulation, and freedom of form, though they have heavy self-weight and longer construction periods.

Steel (S) structures are light and ductile, suited for long spans and high-rises, but steel loses about half its strength at 500°C and requires fireproofing. SRC structures encase structural steel in rebar and concrete, providing superior seismic ductility.

By structural framing system, buildings are categorized into rigid-frame (Rahmen) structures with rigid column-beam joints, wall (box-frame) structures supported by bearing walls and floor slabs, and truss structures composed of pin-connected triangular units.

Key points


  • RC is a monolithic structure with high fire resistance, durability, and sound insulation, but large dead weight

  • Steel structures require fireproofing against high heat; SRC structures provide exceptional ductility

  • Rigid column-beam frames are called Rahmen structures; bearing-wall and slab systems are called wall structures
WordMeaning
reinforced concrete structure (RC)
steel-reinforced concrete structure (SRC)
rigid-frame (Rahmen) and wall structures
ductility / toughness (jinsei)

Four Fundamental Reasons Why Reinforced Concrete (RC) Works as a Composite Material

Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension (its tensile strength is only about 1/10 of its compressive strength). Conversely, steel reinforcing bars have very high tensile strength but, being slender, buckle easily under compression alone.

The first reason RC succeeds is that the two materials complement each other: concrete primarily resists compressive forces while reinforcing bars placed in tensile zones resist tensile forces.

The second reason is the strong 'bond strength' between deformed bars and concrete, preventing slip under load. The third reason is that both materials have nearly identical 'coefficients of linear thermal expansion' (about 0.00001 /°C), preventing thermal separation.

The fourth reason is that highly alkaline concrete (pH 12–13) forms a passive film on the steel surface that prevents rusting (corrosion), while concrete cover also insulates the steel from fire heat.

Key points


  • Concrete tensile strength is about 1/10 of its compressive strength, so steel bars are placed to carry tension

  • Steel and concrete share nearly the same coefficient of linear thermal expansion (~0.00001 /°C)

  • Strong alkalinity of concrete prevents steel corrosion and strong bond action ensures monolithic behavior
WordMeaning
tensile strength (approx. 1/10 of compressive strength)
bond strength (fuchakuryoku)
coefficient of linear thermal expansion
alkalinity and passive protective film

Loads and External Forces Acting on Buildings

Buildings are subjected to various permanent and temporary forces. The Building Standards Act Enforcement Order classifies them into dead load, live load, snow load, wind load, and seismic force for structural design.

'Dead load (fixed load)' is the self-weight of the building components themselves, including columns, beams, floors, walls, roofs, and finishes. 'Live load (occupancy load)' is the vertical weight of movable items such as occupants, furniture, goods, and vehicles.

'Long-term loads' include continuously acting dead and live loads, whereas 'short-term loads' include temporary extreme actions such as storm wind pressures, earthquake forces, and heavy snow loads.

Wind pressure and seismic force act primarily as horizontal lateral forces. Because seismic force is proportional to the building's weight (dead load plus applicable live load) multiplied by the seismic shear coefficient, heavier buildings experience larger seismic forces.

Key points


  • Self-weight of structural and finish elements is 'dead load'; weight of people and furniture is 'live load'

  • Dead and live loads are vertical long-term loads; wind pressure and seismic force are horizontal short-term forces

  • Seismic force increases in direct proportion to the total weight of the building
WordMeaning
dead load / fixed load (kotei kajū)
live load / occupancy load (sekisai kajū)
snow load, wind pressure, and seismic force
long-term load and short-term load

Composition and Equilibrium of Forces, Moments, and Couples

Defining a force requires three characteristics known as the 'three elements of a force': magnitude, direction, and point of application (line of action). Two concurrent forces can be combined into a single resultant using the parallelogram law of forces.

For example, when a horizontal force of 3 kN and a vertical force of 4 kN act perpendicularly at a point, the resultant force R by the Pythagorean theorem is the square root of (3² + 4² = 25), giving R = 5 kN.

The tendency of a force to rotate a body about a point O is called the 'moment of a force (M)' and equals the force P multiplied by the perpendicular distance L (moment arm) from O to the line of action: M = P × L.

Two parallel forces of equal magnitude P acting in opposite directions at a perpendicular distance L apart form a 'couple (gūryoku).' A couple has zero net translational resultant and produces pure rotation of moment M = P × L regardless of the reference point.

Key points


  • The three elements of a force are magnitude, direction, and point of application; orthogonal 3 kN and 4 kN forces yield a 5 kN resultant

  • Moment M = Force P × Perpendicular arm length L, measured in N·m or kN·m

  • Two equal, opposite, parallel forces form a couple with moment M = P × L
WordMeaning
three elements of a force
parallelogram law of forces and resultant
moment of a force (M = P × L)
couple (gūryoku) and moment arm

Internal Forces in Members and Tensile/Compressive Zones of Beams

Under external loads, three internal forces develop within a structural member's cross-section: axial force (compression or tension) along the member axis, bending moment that curves the member, and shear force that tends to slide the section.

In a simply supported beam carrying a downward point load P at midspan, the beam deflects downward so the top is in compression and the bottom is in tension. Its bending moment diagram forms a triangle peaking at midspan.

Conversely, in a cantilever beam fixed at one end and free at the other under a downward load, the top side is in tension and the bottom side is in compression over its entire length, with maximum bending moment at the fixed support. Thus top bars are critical in cantilevers.

In a continuous or rigid-frame RC girder under vertical loads, the bottom side is in tension at midspan while the top side is in tension at both column-face ends. Therefore, more bottom main bars are placed at midspan and more top main bars are placed at the beam ends.

Internal Forces in Members and Tensile/Compressive Zones of Beams

Key points


  • The three cross-sectional internal forces are axial force, bending moment, and shear force

  • A simple beam has tension on the bottom, whereas a cantilever beam has tension on the top with maximum moment at the fixed end

  • In rigid-frame girders, tension occurs at the bottom at midspan and at the top at both beam ends
WordMeaning
axial force, bending moment, and shear force
simply supported beam and cantilever beam
tensile zone and compressive zone
fixed support end and midspan region

Failure Modes of RC Members and the Role of Shear Reinforcement

When RC columns and beams experience severe earthquake forces, two main failure modes exist: ductile flexural failure, where main bars yield and deform gradually, and brittle shear failure, where diagonal cracks cause sudden loss of load capacity.

If brittle shear failure or bond-splitting failure occurs along the main bars, the structure can collapse abruptly. Therefore, seismic design prioritizes preventing shear failure so that ductile flexural yielding governs.

Column hoops (obikin) and beam stirrups (abarakin) wrapped around the main bars restrain diagonal shear cracks, greatly enhancing shear capacity and deformation ductility (jinsei).

In addition, hoops and stirrups confine the core concrete to improve compressive toughness, prevent outward buckling of compressed main bars, and hold the longitudinal bars accurately in position.

Key points


  • Seismic design prevents sudden brittle shear failure and ensures ductile flexural yielding

  • Column hoops (obikin) and beam stirrups (abarakin) resist shear failure and increase member ductility

  • Hoops and stirrups also confine core concrete and prevent buckling of longitudinal main bars
WordMeaning
shear failure (brittle failure) and flexural failure
bond-splitting failure (fuchaku katsuretsu hakai)
column hoops (obikin) and beam stirrups (abarakin)
prevention of main bar buckling

Foundation Types (Shallow Foundations and Pile Foundations) and Soil Behavior

Foundations safely transfer building loads to the ground and are broadly classified into shallow (direct) foundations resting directly on firm near-surface soil, and pile foundations transferring loads through piles to deeper strata.

Shallow foundations include isolated footings under individual columns, strip (continuous) footings under walls or column rows, and mat (raft) foundations supporting the entire building footprint on a thick slab.

Pile foundations are classified by load support into end-bearing piles reaching a hard bearing stratum and friction piles relying on skin friction. By installation method, they include precast piles (PHC, steel pipe) and cast-in-place concrete piles (such as the earth-drill method) where a rebar cage is lowered into a bored hole.

In loose, saturated sandy soils with a high groundwater table, earthquake shaking sharply increases pore-water pressure, causing the ground to behave like a liquid in a phenomenon known as 'soil liquefaction (ekijōka).'

Foundation Types (Shallow Foundations and Pile Foundations) and Soil Behavior

Key points


  • Shallow foundations include isolated, strip, and mat footings; foundation types should not be mixed in one building to avoid differential settlement

  • Pile foundations are categorized into end-bearing vs. friction piles, and precast vs. cast-in-place concrete piles

  • Loose saturated sandy ground is prone to soil liquefaction during earthquakes
WordMeaning
shallow foundations (isolated, strip, and mat)
pile foundations (end-bearing and friction piles)
cast-in-place concrete piles (earth-drill method)
soil liquefaction in sandy ground

Basics of Steel, Timber, Masonry Structures, and Roof Shapes

The Building Structure subject in the Skill Test also covers non-RC structures. In steel structures (S), joints use high-strength bolts, welding, or ordinary bolts; high-strength bolt friction connections transmit forces via friction between tightly clamped steel contact surfaces.

The connecting steel plate used to attach braces or beams at steel joints is called a 'gusset plate.' An H-section steel member consists of top and bottom horizontal plates called 'flanges' and a central vertical plate called the 'web.'

In traditional timber post-and-beam framing, diagonal braces installed in vertical wall planes to resist wind and earthquake forces are called 'sujikai' (wall braces), whereas diagonal members stiffening the corners of horizontal floor or roof planes are called 'hiuchizai' (angle ties).

Common roof shapes include the gable roof (kirizuma) sloping in two directions, the hip roof (yosemune) sloping in four directions with four hip ridges, and the shed roof (katanagare) sloping in one direction. Reinforced concrete block masonry is strengthened by inserting vertical rebars into hollow cores and grouting them with mortar or concrete.

Key points


  • The top/bottom plates of an H-section are 'flanges' and the vertical middle plate is the 'web'; high-strength bolt friction joints transfer force by friction

  • In timber framing, diagonal wall braces are 'sujikai' and horizontal corner braces are 'hiuchizai'

  • Distinguish clearly between a two-way sloping gable roof (kirizuma) and a four-way sloping hip roof (yosemune)
WordMeaning
high-strength bolt friction connection and gusset plate
flange and web of H-section steel
timber wall brace (sujikai) and horizontal corner brace (hiuchizai)
gable roof (kirizuma) and hip roof (yosemune)

Official references

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