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General Livestock Farming, Breeds, Physiology, and Reproduction

Agriculture (SSW 2) · 農業(2号) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Major Livestock Breeds (Dairy, Beef, Swine, and Poultry) and Traits

Among dairy cattle, black-and-white Holsteins (highest milk yield) account for ~98%, while smaller fawn-colored Jerseys produce high-butterfat milk. Among beef cattle (Wagyu), Japanese Black (Kuroge Washu) renowned for fine marbling accounts for over 90%.

In three-way crossbred pork production (LWD), Landrace (L: white, lop-eared) and Large White/Yorkshire (W: white, erect-eared) are crossed to create prolific F1 maternal sows (LW), which are bred to terminal Duroc boars (D: reddish-brown). The black six-white-pointed Berkshire breed is famed as Kurobuta.

In poultry, White Leghorn is the primary white-egg layer breed, while commercial broilers are hybrids of White Cornish and White Plymouth Rock.

Key points


  • Holsteins lead in milk volume and Jerseys in milk fat; Japanese Black (Kuroge Washu) dominates Wagyu beef.

  • Three-way cross pigs (LWD) pair an LW F1 sow with a terminal Duroc (D) boar; Berkshire (six white points) produces Kurobuta pork.

  • White Leghorn is the main egg layer breed, and broilers are crosses of White Cornish and White Plymouth Rock.
WordMeaning
marbling (intramuscular fat)
three-way crossbred pig (LWD)
heterosis (hybrid vigor)
layer chickens and broiler chickens

Bovine Ruminant Stomachs and Avian Digestion & Egg Formation

Cattle are ruminants with four stomach compartments. The largest, the rumen (first stomach), hosts microbes that ferment plant fiber into volatile fatty acids (VFAs) for energy, while cattle regurgitate and rechew cud (rumination).

The reticulum (second stomach) aids rumination, the omasum (third stomach / senmai) absorbs water and grinds feed between leaf-like folds, and the abomasum (fourth stomach / giara) is the true stomach secreting hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Excess concentrates cause rumen acidosis.

Chickens lack teeth and grind feed in the muscular gizzard using grit. In laying hens, it takes about 24–25 hours from ovulation of the yolk until the completed egg is laid.

Key points


  • In cattle, the rumen ferments fiber via microbes, the omasum absorbs water, and the abomasum is the acid-secreting true stomach.

  • Insufficient roughage and excessive concentrate feed lower rumen pH, causing rumen acidosis and displaced abomasum.

  • Chickens grind feed in the gizzard, and egg formation from ovulation to laying takes approximately 24–25 hours.
WordMeaning
rumination and rumen (first stomach)
abomasum (true stomach)
rumen acidosis
gizzard (ventriculus)

Livestock Vital Signs (Body Temperature, Pulse, and Respiration)

Normal rectal temperatures of healthy adult livestock are higher than in humans: adult cattle average 38.0–39.5°C (~38.5°C), adult pigs 38.5–39.5°C (~39.0°C), and adult chickens 41.0–42.0°C (~41.5°C).

Normal respiration rates per minute are 15–30 breaths for adult cattle and 10–20 breaths for adult pigs, rising sharply during heat stress or fever.

Normal pulse rates per minute are 40–80 beats (average 60–70) for adult cattle and 60–80 beats for adult pigs. In cattle, pulse is palpated at the coccygeal artery on the underside of the tail base or the external maxillary artery along the lower jaw.

Key points


  • Normal temperatures: adult cattle ~38.5°C (38.0–39.5°C), adult pigs ~39.0°C, and adult chickens ~41.5°C (41–42°C).

  • Adult cattle have a normal respiration rate of 15–30 breaths/min and a pulse rate of 40–80 beats/min.

  • Measure a cow's pulse at the coccygeal (tail) artery or the external maxillary artery.
WordMeaning
rectal temperature
respiration rate and pulse rate
coccygeal (tail) artery
external maxillary (facial) artery

Estrous Cycle, Estrus Signs, Artificial Insemination, and Gestation

Both cattle and pigs have an estrous cycle of about 21 days (19–22 days). Estrus in cattle lasts ~15–18 hours, and standing immobile when mounted by another cow ('standing heat') is the most reliable sign.

Because ovulation in cattle occurs 10–12 hours after estrus ends, artificial insemination (AI) is performed 12–18 hours after the onset of standing heat (AM-PM rule). Frozen semen straws stored in liquid nitrogen (−196°C) are thawed in 35–38°C warm water and deposited using the rectovaginal method with trimmed nails and a lubricated shoulder-length glove.

In sows, optimal AI timing is confirmed by the standing immobilization reflex when pressing the back (back-pressure test). Average gestation is ~280 days in Holsteins (~285 days in Wagyu; Month − 3, Day + 10) and ~114 days in pigs (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days); chicken egg incubation takes ~21 days.

Estrous Cycle, Estrus Signs, Artificial Insemination, and Gestation

Key points


  • Cattle and pigs cycle every ~21 days; detect optimal timing via standing heat in cows and the back-pressure reflex in sows.

  • Thaw frozen bull semen (−196°C) in 35–38°C warm water and inseminate 12–18 hours after standing heat begins (AM-PM rule).

  • Gestation averages ~280–285 days in cattle (Month − 3, Day + 10) and ~114 days in pigs; chicken eggs hatch in ~21 days.
WordMeaning
estrous cycle (21 days) and standing heat
frozen semen and thawing (at 35–38°C)
rectovaginal AI technique
gestation period (Cattle ~280 d, Swine ~114 d)

Livestock Industry, Breeding and Reproduction

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Official references