VIENID Start practicing

Home › Lessons › Agriculture

Livestock Breeding, Calving/Farrowing Management, Feeds, and Feeding

Agriculture · 農業 · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Estrous Cycle, Heat Detection, and Artificial Insemination

Mature non-pregnant cows and sows repeat estrus (heat) approximately every 21 days (about 3 weeks), known as the "estrous cycle". Careful morning and evening observation to detect heat without missing a cycle is key to reproductive performance.

Signs of estrus in cattle include "standing heat (mounting acceptance)"—standing still while being mounted by another cow—along with a swollen vulva discharging clear mucus, frequent bellowing, and restlessness.

In sows, estrus causes the vulva to swell and redden, and pressing firmly on the back or loin elicits the "standing reflex (back-pressure test)", where the sow stands rigid with ears pricked. "Artificial insemination (AI)" is then performed at the optimal timing using frozen or chilled semen.

Estrous Cycle, Heat Detection, and Artificial Insemination

Key points


  • The estrous cycle of both cattle and pigs is approximately 21 days (3 weeks).

  • The definitive sign of heat in cattle is standing to be mounted by herd mates (standing heat).

  • Check heat in sows using the "back-pressure test" to see if they stand immobile when pressed on the back.
WordMeaning
estrous cycle
standing heat (mounting acceptance)
standing reflex (back-pressure test)
artificial insemination (AI)

Gestation Period, Calving/Farrowing Care, and Colostrum Feeding

The gestation period is about 280 days (roughly 9 months and 10 days) for cattle and about 114 days ("3 months, 3 weeks, and 3 days") for pigs. Fertilized chicken eggs hatch in about 21 days. Dairy cows are given a "dry period (kannyuu kikan)" of about 60 days without milking before calving.

As the due date approaches, move the dam into a cleaned, disinfected, and well-bedded "maternity pen (or farrowing crate for sows)". Immediately after birth, wipe mucus and amniotic fluid from the newborn's nose and mouth to clear its airway, and disinfect the umbilical cord (navel).

"Colostrum (first milk)" secreted during the first few days after birth is rich in maternal antibodies (immunoglobulins) and nutrients that protect newborns from infection. Ensure newborns drink sufficient colostrum as soon as possible (within the first few hours). Piglets also require supplemental heating and iron administration to prevent anemia.

Key points


  • Gestation lasts about 280 days in cattle and 114 days in pigs; chicken eggs incubate for about 21 days.

  • Right after birth, clear mucus from the nose and mouth to ensure breathing and disinfect the umbilical cord.

  • Feed antibody-rich "colostrum" in sufficient amounts as soon as possible after birth.
WordMeaning
gestation period / dry period
maternity pen / umbilical cord disinfection
colostrum / maternal antibodies
iron administration

Characteristics of Roughage, Concentrates, and Total Mixed Ration (TMR)

Livestock feeds are divided into high-fiber, bulky "roughage (soshiryou)" and energy- (TDN) and protein-rich (CP) "concentrates (noukou shiryou)". For ruminants like cattle, adequate roughage is essential to maintain healthy rumen function.

Roughages include "grass forages" (Timothy, Italian ryegrass, orchardgrass, Sudangrass), protein- and calcium-rich "legume forages" (alfalfa/lucerne, clover), and rice straw. Forages are preserved either by drying into "hay (kansou)" or sealing air-tight for lactic acid fermentation into "silage".

Concentrates include cereal grains (corn, milo/sorghum, barley), oilseed meals (soybean meal, rapeseed meal), brans (wheat bran, rice bran), and compound feeds. "TMR (Total Mixed Ration)", which blends chopped roughage, concentrates, vitamins, and minerals together to prevent cows from "sorting feed", is widely used.

Characteristics of Roughage, Concentrates, and Total Mixed Ration (TMR)

Key points


  • Roughages include grass forages (e.g., Timothy), legume forages (e.g., alfalfa), hay, silage, and rice straw.

  • Concentrates include corn, soybean meal, wheat bran, and compound feeds rich in energy and protein.

  • TMR mixes roughage and concentrates together, preventing feed sorting and stabilizing rumen fermentation.
WordMeaning
roughage (forage) / concentrate feed
hay / silage
soybean meal / wheat bran
Total Mixed Ration (TMR)

Feed Storage Management and Basics of Feeding & Watering

Exposure to rain or moisture causes mold growth and toxic "mycotoxins" or spoilage in feed. Store feed bags on pallets in a cool, well-ventilated place away from direct sunlight and rain, and follow "first-in, first-out" rotation.

Silage is fermented anaerobically (without air) by lactic acid bacteria; good-quality silage has a pleasant sweet-sour aroma. If air enters after opening or through film tears, "secondary fermentation (aerobic spoilage)" causes heating and mold, so reseal the face tightly and discard any moldy portions.

When changing feed types, transition gradually over 1–2 weeks to prevent digestive upset. Every day before feeding, clear leftover feed from troughs and clean them, and inspect water cups or troughs so livestock have constant access to fresh, clean water.

Key points


  • Store feed in a dry, ventilated area using first-in, first-out rotation to prevent mycotoxin formation.

  • Good silage smells pleasantly sweet-sour; reseal tightly after opening to prevent aerobic secondary fermentation.

  • Remove leftover feed from troughs daily and provide continuous access to clean, fresh water.
WordMeaning
mycotoxin (mold toxin)
lactic acid fermentation / secondary fermentation
feed trough / leftover feed
automatic water cup (water bowl)

Preventing Nutritional Disorders, Metabolic Diseases, and Foreign Body Ingestion

Feeding cattle excessive concentrates with insufficient roughage can cause "rumen acidosis" (excessive acidity in the rumen), "bloat (kochoushou)" where trapped gas distends the left flank, and "displaced abomasum".

High-producing dairy cows right after calving are also prone to "milk fever (hypocalcemia)"—where sudden milk production depletes blood calcium and makes the cow unable to stand—as well as "ketosis" caused by negative energy balance.

If metal fragments like wire or nails contaminate feed, cattle may swallow them, puncturing the second stomach (reticulum) and heart sac ("hardware disease / traumatic reticuloperitonitis"). Prevent foreign object contamination and administer a "cow magnet" into the stomach for prevention.

Key points


  • Overfeeding concentrates and underfeeding roughage cause rumen acidosis, bloat, and displaced abomasum.

  • "Milk fever" is a postpartum condition in dairy cows where blood calcium deficiency causes recumbency (inability to stand).

  • Prevent hardware disease from swallowed metal objects through careful feed management and administering cow magnets.
WordMeaning
rumen acidosis / bloat
displaced abomasum
milk fever (hypocalcemia) / ketosis
traumatic reticuloperitonitis (hardware disease)

Breeding, Feed and Diseases

Practice this chapter in the app

Official references