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Electrical Machines, Switching/Control Devices, and Measuring Instruments (Rotating Machines, Transformers, Circuit Breakers, Relays, Meters)

Electrical Equipment Assembly – Control Panels 電気機器組立て (Grade 2 theory) · 技能検定「電気機器組立て」2級 学科(配電盤・制御盤組立て) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Principles, Synchronous Speed, Slip, and Reversing Rotation of Three-Phase Induction Motors

The "three-phase induction motor (squirrel-cage and wound-rotor types)", most widely used as a power source in factories, passes three-phase AC through the stator windings to create a "rotating magnetic field", inducing current in the rotor and rotating it by electromagnetic force.

The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field, called "synchronous speed Ns (unit: min⁻¹)", is proportional to the power supply frequency f (Hz) and inversely proportional to the number of magnetic poles p, calculated by the formula "Ns = 120 × f ÷ p".

For example, in a 4-pole (p = 4) induction motor, the synchronous speed in a 50Hz region is "120 × 50 ÷ 4 = 1500 min⁻¹", and in a 60Hz region is "120 × 60 ÷ 4 = 1800 min⁻¹". Therefore, operating a 60Hz motor on a 50Hz power supply slows the rotational speed by about 17% (stating that it runs faster is incorrect).

The actual rotational speed N of an induction motor is slightly slower than the synchronous speed Ns, and this ratio is called "slip s = (Ns − N) ÷ Ns". In addition, the frequency of the secondary current flowing in the rotor is expressed as "f2 = s × f".

To reverse the rotational direction of a three-phase induction motor, "swap the connections of any two of the three power supply wires (R, S, T)" in the main circuit to reverse the direction of the rotating magnetic field. Note that a single-phase induction motor will not reverse by swapping the two power wires; instead, the connection of either the starting winding or main winding must be switched.

Key points


  • Synchronous speed is found by "Ns = 120 × f ÷ p"; a 4-pole machine runs at 1500 min⁻¹ at 50Hz and 1800 min⁻¹ at 60Hz

  • Slip is "s = (Ns − N) ÷ Ns", and operating a 60Hz induction motor at 50Hz reduces its rotational speed

  • Reversing a three-phase induction motor is done by "swapping two of the three power supply wires" (a single-phase motor does not reverse by swapping power supply wires)
WordMeaning
Three-phase induction motor and rotating magnetic field
Synchronous speed (Ns = 120 × f ÷ p)
Slip (s) and secondary frequency
Forward and reverse rotation (swapping 2 of 3 phases)

Starting Methods (Star-Delta Starting), Speed Control, and Braking of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors

"Direct-on-line starting (full-voltage starting)", which starts a three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor directly at rated voltage, is widely used for small-capacity motors, but draws a large starting current of 5 to 7 times the rated current, causing supply voltage drops.

A representative method to suppress starting current in medium- or larger-capacity squirrel-cage induction motors is "star-delta (Y-△) starting". Connecting the windings in star (Y) at startup reduces phase voltage to 1÷1.73 times, reducing both starting current and starting torque to "1/3 (one-third)" of direct-on-line (△ connection), before switching to △ connection after acceleration.

Other reduced-voltage starting methods for squirrel-cage induction motors include "reactor starting" (inserting a reactor in series with the main circuit) and "autotransformer starting (Korndorfer starting)". Note that "secondary resistance starting" is for wound-rotor induction motors and cannot be used for squirrel-cage motors.

For speed control of induction motors, an "inverter (VVVF control)" that converts DC into AC of arbitrary frequency and voltage, or pole-changing methods, are used. Because motor torque is proportional to the square of applied voltage, an inverter controls the motor while keeping the ratio of voltage V to frequency f (V/f) constant.

Electrical braking methods to stop a motor quickly include "regenerative braking" (returning power to the supply as a generator), "dynamic braking" (passing DC through stator windings to convert kinetic energy into heat), and "plugging (reverse-phase braking)" (applying a reverse magnetic field while rotating).

Key points


  • Starting methods for squirrel-cage induction motors include "direct-on-line, Y-△, reactor, and autotransformer starting", whereas secondary resistance starting is for wound-rotor motors

  • In Y-△ (star-delta) starting, both starting current and starting torque become "1/3" of those in direct-on-line starting

  • A device that converts DC into AC of variable frequency and variable voltage is called an "inverter", used for smooth speed control of induction motors
WordMeaning
Direct-on-line starting and star-delta (Y-△) starting
Reactor starting and autotransformer (compensator) starting
Inverter (DC-to-AC conversion, VVVF)
Regenerative braking, dynamic braking, and plugging

Transformers (Turns Ratio, Iron and Copper Losses, Parallel Operation), DC Machines, and Servo Motors

A transformer is a static machine that transforms AC voltage by electromagnetic induction. The ratio of primary turns N1 to secondary turns N2, "a = N1 ÷ N2", is the turns ratio; the voltage ratio is "V1 ÷ V2 = a", the current ratio is the inverse "I2 ÷ I1 = a", and the secondary impedance Z2 referred to the primary side is "Z1 = a² × Z2".

Transformer losses are divided into "no-load loss (= iron loss: sum of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss)", which occurs constantly in the iron core whenever voltage is applied, and "load loss (= copper loss)", which occurs in the winding resistance proportional to the square of load current. Transformer efficiency is maximum when "iron loss equals copper loss".

Transformer cooling methods include oil-immersed natural cooling (ONAN) and dry-type natural cooling (AN). The conditions for "parallel operation" of two transformers are: ① Identical polarity, ② Equal primary and secondary rated voltages (turns ratio), ③ Equal percentage impedance drop, and ④ For three-phase transformers, identical angular displacement (phase shift due to winding connection).

Armature windings of DC motors and generators are of two types: "lap winding (suited for low-voltage, high-current machines)", where the number of parallel paths equals the number of poles, and "wave winding (suited for high-voltage, low-current machines)", where the number of parallel paths is always 2 regardless of pole count (exam questions frequently swap lap and wave winding applications as a trap).

Furthermore, for positioning control in automated machinery, "stepping motors (pulse motors)" that rotate by an exact angle proportional to the number of input pulses, and "servo motors" that continuously apply feedback control of position and speed using an encoder (rotation detector), are used.

Key points


  • Transformer no-load loss is "iron loss (hysteresis loss + eddy current loss)", load loss is "copper loss", and efficiency is maximum when iron loss = copper loss

  • In parallel operation of transformers, "polarity, turns ratio (rated voltage), percentage impedance, and three-phase angular displacement" must match

  • For DC machine armature windings, "lap winding = low voltage, high current" and "wave winding = high voltage, low current"
WordMeaning
Transformer turns ratio, iron loss, and copper loss
Conditions for parallel operation of transformers
Lap winding (low voltage, high current) and wave winding (high voltage, low current)
Stepping motor and servo motor

Functions, Types, and Letter Symbols of Circuit Breakers (CB), Disconnectors (DS), and Earth Leakage Breakers

A "circuit breaker (CB)" is equipped with an arc-extinguishing device and can safely interrupt not only normal load currents but also large currents during short-circuit or ground-fault accidents. In contrast, a "disconnecting switch (DS: disconnector)" has no arc-extinguishing capability and is used only to isolate circuits under "no-load conditions when no load current is flowing".

Because alternating current passes through a "current zero point (the instant when current value becomes 0)" twice every cycle, arcs extinguish easily; thus, AC has the important property that "alternating current is easier to interrupt than direct current", which has no current zero point.

Circuit breaker types and JEM letter symbols according to arc-extinguishing medium are defined as: "Oil circuit breaker = OCB", "Vacuum circuit breaker = VCB", "Gas circuit breaker (SF6 gas) = GCB", "Magnetic blow-out circuit breaker = MBB", "Air circuit breaker = ACB", "Molded case circuit breaker = MCCB", and "Earth leakage circuit breaker = ELCB (or ELB)".

In written exams, incorrect options such as "giving MCB or ACB as the symbol for a magnetic circuit breaker" or "defining ACB as a field circuit breaker" appear almost every year, so accurately distinguish "Magnetic circuit breaker = MBB, Air circuit breaker = ACB".

An "earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)" detects ground-fault current (leakage current) by a "zero-phase current transformer (ZCT)" through which all 3 (or 2) main circuit wires pass together, tripping the circuit to prevent electric shock and fire (statements that it "detects ground-fault current by a voltage transformer" are incorrect).

Functions, Types, and Letter Symbols of Circuit Breakers (CB), Disconnectors (DS), and Earth Leakage Breakers

Key points


  • A disconnecting switch (DS) cannot interrupt load current and operates only at no load; AC is easier to interrupt than DC because it has current zero points

  • Circuit breaker letter symbols are "Vacuum = VCB, Gas = GCB, Magnetic = MBB, Air = ACB, Molded case = MCCB, Oil = OCB"

  • An earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) detects ground-fault current using a "zero-phase current transformer (ZCT)", not a voltage transformer
WordMeaning
Circuit breaker (CB) and disconnecting switch (DS: no-load switching)
VCB (vacuum), GCB (gas), MBB (magnetic), ACB (air)
Molded case circuit breaker (MCCB) and earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)
Zero-phase current transformer (ZCT) and support insulator

Magnetic Contactors (MC), Magnetic Switches (MS), Semiconductor Contactors (SSR), and Fuses

A "magnetic contactor (MC)" passes current through an operating coil so an electromagnet opens and closes main contacts and auxiliary contacts (a-contacts and b-contacts), frequently switching load currents of motors, etc. The iron core of an AC electromagnet is provided with a "shading coil" to prevent humming noise and vibration.

A "magnetic switch (MS)" combines into a single unit a "magnetic contactor (MC)" that switches the load and a "thermal relay (THR)" that detects overload current using a bimetal strip made by bonding two metals with different thermal expansion coefficients.

Because magnetic contactors and thermal relays cannot interrupt large short-circuit currents, a "molded case circuit breaker (MCCB)" or "fuse" must always be installed on their power supply side for short-circuit protection. Furthermore, JEM specifies that DC-operated magnetic contactors must operate reliably at 85% to 110% of rated control supply voltage.

A contactless "semiconductor contactor (SSR: solid state relay)" using semiconductor devices such as thyristors or triacs has no moving parts, offering long life without arcs or switching noise, making it extremely well suited for "high-frequency switching" such as electric furnace heater temperature control.

In addition, "fuses (low-voltage fuses and high-voltage current-limiting fuses PF)" have an excellent "current-limiting action" in which the internal fusible element melts instantaneously when excessive short-circuit current flows, suppressing and interrupting the current before its peak value reaches maximum.

Magnetic Contactors (MC), Magnetic Switches (MS), Semiconductor Contactors (SSR), and Fuses

Key points


  • The combination of a "magnetic contactor (MC)" and an overload-protecting "thermal relay (THR)" is called a "magnetic switch (MS)"

  • A semiconductor contactor (SSR) is contactless, free of wear and noise, and suited for "high-frequency switching" in heater circuits, etc.

  • High-voltage current-limiting fuses and low-voltage fuses have a "current-limiting action" that rapidly melts to suppress short-circuit current, used for short-circuit protection
WordMeaning
Magnetic contactor (MC) and shading coil
Magnetic switch (MC + thermal relay THR)
Semiconductor contactor (SSR: contactless, high-frequency switching)
Power fuse and current-limiting action

Control/Protective Relays and Operating Switches (Rotary Switch Handle Shapes)

Among "auxiliary relays (control relays)" that relay or amplify signals and expand contacts in control circuits, a "reed relay"—which seals inert gas and magnetic metal strips (reeds) inside a glass tube and switches via an external coil's magnetic field—features compact size, high contact reliability, and high-speed operation.

Note that when DC voltage is applied for a long time between silver electrodes touching an insulating surface in the presence of moisture, silver ions migrate in a dendritic (tree-like) pattern toward the cathode, causing insulation degradation or short circuits known as "silver migration".

"Protective relays" that detect abnormalities in power circuits and issue trip commands to circuit breakers include overcurrent relays (OCR: device number 51), undervoltage relays (UVR: 27), overvoltage relays (OVR: 59), directional ground relays (DGR: 67), and ground overvoltage relays (OVGR: 64).

Devices operated by workers on the panel front include "pushbutton switches" that actuate only while pressed by a finger, and "rotary control switches (control switches / cam switches)" switched by turning a knob. Rotary control switches include "spring-return (automatic return) types" that return to the original position when released, and "notch (manual return) types" that hold the turned position.

For the operating handle shapes of rotary control switches, "pistol type (for circuit breaker operation, etc.)", "oval type (egg-shaped, for meter selector switching, etc.)", and "round type (rosette type)" are used to prevent misoperation by application (a "stick type" handle shape is not used).

Key points


  • A "reed relay" with magnetic contact strips sealed in a glass tube offers high speed and reliability; with silver electrodes, beware of "silver migration" caused by moisture and DC voltage

  • Rotary control switches include "automatic-return types" that return to neutral when released and "manual-return (notch) types" that hold their position

  • Control switch handle shapes include "pistol, oval, and round (rosette) types", whereas "stick type" is not used
WordMeaning
Reed relay and silver migration
Protective relays (OCR, UVR, OVR, DGR)
Rotary control switch (automatic return / manual return)
Handle shapes (pistol type, oval type, round type)

Ratio Calculations of Instrument Transformers (CT, VT, PD) and Clamp Meter Measurement

"Current transformers (CT)" used to measure current in large-current circuits include "window-type (through-type) CTs" where the primary conductor (busbar or wire) passes through a central window hole in the core, and wound-type CTs having a primary winding. The standard secondary rated current of a CT is "5A (or 1A)".

The load current (primary current I1) of a circuit using a CT is found by multiplying the secondary ammeter reading I2 by the "CT ratio (primary rated current ÷ secondary rated current)". For example, when a secondary ammeter reads "3.5A" with a CT of "ratio 100/5A (= 20 times)", the actual load current is "3.5 × (100 ÷ 5) = 70A".

Similarly, in a circuit connected to a CT with a "ratio of 120/15A (= 8 times)", when the secondary ammeter reads "5A", the load current is "5 × (120 ÷ 15) = 40A". This CT proportion calculation is a top-priority question asked every single year on the Grade 2 written exam.

Meanwhile, the standard secondary rated voltage of a "voltage transformer (VT)" is "110V". Also, in "extra-high-voltage (ultra-high-voltage) circuits" such as transmission lines and substations, where winding insulation is difficult, a "capacitive voltage transformer (PD: potential device)" utilizing capacitive voltage division of series capacitors is used.

A "clamp meter", which measures AC current on live lines without cutting wiring, measures by clamping "only 1 wire" inside its split iron core. If both outgoing and return wires of a single-phase 2-wire circuit are clamped simultaneously, the magnetic fields of the opposing currents cancel each other out, resulting in a reading of "0A" and making measurement impossible.

Ratio Calculations of Instrument Transformers (CT, VT, PD) and Clamp Meter Measurement

Key points


  • Primary current of a current transformer (CT) is calculated by "secondary ammeter reading × (primary rating ÷ secondary rating)" (e.g., 3.5A on 100/5A gives 70A; 5A on 120/15A gives 40A)

  • A "capacitive voltage transformer (PD)" utilizing capacitor voltage division is mainly used in "extra-high-voltage (ultra-high-voltage) circuits"

  • When measuring current with a clamp meter, clamp "only 1 wire" (clamping both outgoing and return wires simultaneously cancels the magnetic field and prevents measurement)
WordMeaning
Window-type current transformer (CT) and CT ratio calculation
Voltage transformer (VT) and 110V secondary rating
Capacitive voltage transformer (PD: for extra-high voltage)
Clamp meter (clamp one wire at a time to measure)

Units, Accuracy Classes (Class 1.5, Class 2.5), Operating Principles of Measuring Instruments, and Power Measurement

Measurement units of electrical instruments are: "V (volt)" for voltmeters, "A (ampere)" for ammeters, "W (watt) or kW" for wattmeters measuring active power, "Wh or kWh" for watt-hour meters, "VA" for apparent power meters, "var or kvar for reactive power meters", and "Hz" for frequency meters (giving W for reactive power meters or kWh for wattmeters is incorrect).

Regarding the "accuracy class" indicating the precision of indicating meters, "Class 1.5 or Class 2.5" is used for wide-angle monitoring meters mounted on the front of switchboards and control panels (Class 0.5 is a precision standard meter for laboratory use; stating Class 0.5 for panel-mount meters is incorrect).

By operating principle (JIS symbol mark), the "moving-coil type" using a permanent magnet and moving coil is "exclusively for direct current (DC)" and cannot be used in AC circuits. Conversely, "moving-iron type (AC/DC, RMS indication)", "electrodynamometer type (AC/DC, wattmeters, etc.)", "rectifier type (for AC)", and "induction type (AC watt-hour meters)" are used for AC circuit measurements.

To extend the measuring range of a DC ammeter by m times, connect a "shunt resistor Rs = ra ÷ (m − 1)" in parallel with its internal resistance ra; to extend the measuring range of a DC voltmeter by m times, connect a "multiplier resistor Rm = (m − 1) × rv" in series with its internal resistance rv.

Furthermore, since active power P in a single-phase AC circuit is found by "P = V × I × cosφ", finding power without a wattmeter requires only three meters—"voltmeter, ammeter, and power factor meter"—while a "frequency meter" or "fluxmeter" is unnecessary. Power in a three-phase 3-wire circuit can be measured by the "two-wattmeter method", which sums the readings of two single-phase wattmeters "P = W1 + W2".

Key points


  • The unit for reactive power meters is "var", wattmeters is "W", and watt-hour meters is "Wh (kWh)"; panel monitoring meters use "Class 1.5 or Class 2.5"

  • "Moving-coil instruments" are for DC only and cannot be used in AC circuits; AC uses "moving-iron, electrodynamometer, rectifier, and induction types"

  • Finding single-phase AC power (P = V × I × cosφ) requires a "voltmeter, ammeter, and power factor meter"; a frequency meter or fluxmeter is unnecessary
WordMeaning
Reactive power meter (unit: var) and watt-hour meter (Wh)
Instrument accuracy class (Class 1.5 and 2.5 for switchboard panels)
Moving-coil type (DC only) and moving-iron type (for AC)
Shunt (for ammeter), multiplier (for voltmeter), and two-wattmeter method

Electric Machines, Switchgear & Instruments

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Official references

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