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Home › Lessons › Electrical Equipment Assembly – Control Panels 電気機器組立て (Grade 2 theory)

Fundamentals of Electrical Theory, Electronic Circuits, and Automatic Control (DC, AC, Electromagnetism, Semiconductors, Logic Circuits, Control)

Electrical Equipment Assembly – Control Panels 電気機器組立て (Grade 2 theory) · 技能検定「電気機器組立て」2級 学科(配電盤・制御盤組立て) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Laws, Series-Parallel Equivalent Resistance, and Wheatstone Bridge

The current I (A) flowing through a conductor is proportional to the applied voltage V (V) and inversely proportional to the electrical resistance R (Ω). This is called "Ohm's law (I = V ÷ R, V = I × R)", meaning current through a constant resistance increases in proportion to voltage.

"Kirchhoff's laws" are used to calculate complex circuit networks. The 1st law (current law) states that "the sum of currents flowing into any node in a circuit equals the sum of currents flowing out"; the 2nd law (voltage law) states that "the sum of electromotive forces in a closed loop equals the sum of voltage drops".

The equivalent resistance of multiple resistors in series is "R = R1 + R2", dividing voltage in proportion to resistance values. Conversely, the equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel is "R = (R1 × R2) ÷ (R1 + R2)" (product over sum), dividing current in inverse proportion to branch resistances.

For example, when an 8Ω resistor is connected in series with a parallel circuit of 6Ω and 3Ω (equivalent to 2Ω) across 100V, total equivalent resistance is "2 + 8 = 10Ω", total current is "100 ÷ 10 = 10A", and "10A × 3 ÷ (6 + 3) = 3.33A" flows through the 6Ω branch.

Furthermore, in a "Wheatstone bridge circuit" for precision measurement of an unknown resistance, when balanced (zero current through the central galvanometer G), the products of opposite arm resistances are equal: "R1 × R4 = R2 × R3" (e.g., 10Ω × 6Ω = 20Ω × R gives R = 3Ω).

Key points


  • By Ohm's law, current is expressed as "I = V ÷ R", increasing proportionally to voltage when resistance is constant

  • Parallel equivalent resistance of 2 resistors is "R = (R1 × R2) ÷ (R1 + R2)", and series-parallel circuits are combined starting from the parallel section

  • When a Wheatstone bridge is balanced (galvanometer current is 0), the product of opposite arms "R1 × R4 = R2 × R3" holds
WordMeaning
Ohm's law (V = I × R)
Kirchhoff's 1st law and 2nd law
Series-parallel equivalent resistance and voltage/current division
Wheatstone bridge balance condition

Conductor Resistance (Length, Cross-Sectional Area, and Diameter) and Power / Joule's Law

The electrical resistance R (Ω) of a conductor such as a wire is proportional to the material's inherent "resistivity" and conductor "length l (m)", and inversely proportional to its "cross-sectional area A (mm²)". Also, the cross-sectional area A of a round wire is proportional to the "square of its diameter d (d²)".

Therefore, doubling the diameter d of a round wire increases its cross-sectional area A by "2² = 4 times", reducing resistance per unit length to "1/4 (one-fourth)". Conversely, to obtain the same resistance as a 1mm-diameter, 1m-long copper wire using a 2mm-diameter copper wire (4 times the area), the length must be quadrupled to "4m".

The electrical resistance of pure metals (such as copper and aluminum) has a "positive temperature coefficient of resistance", increasing as temperature rises. Conversely, carbon and semiconductors (such as thermistors) exhibit decreasing resistance as temperature rises.

Power P (unit: W) consumed per second in a DC circuit is found by "P = V × I = I² × R = V² ÷ R", and multiplying power P (W) by time t (h) gives electrical energy W (Wh or kWh).

The heat (Joule heat) Q (unit: J) generated when current I (A) flows through resistance R (Ω) for t seconds is given by "Joule's law" as "Q = P × t = I² × R × t (J)" (1 W·s = 1 J, and 1 kWh equals 3600 kJ).

Key points


  • Conductor resistance is proportional to length and inversely proportional to cross-sectional area (square of diameter), so a wire with twice the diameter requires "4 times" the length for equal resistance

  • Metallic conductors like copper and aluminum increase in electrical resistance as temperature rises (positive temperature coefficient)

  • By Joule's law, heat generated by current is "Q = I² × R × t (J)", proportional to the square of the current
WordMeaning
Resistivity and conductor length / cross-sectional area (square of diameter)
Temperature coefficient of resistance (metals increase in resistance as temperature rises)
Electric power (W) and electrical energy (Wh, kWh)
Joule's law (Q = I² × R × t (J))

Electrostatics and Capacitor Capacitance, Series-Parallel Equivalent Capacitance, and Stored Energy

The electrostatic force between two electric charges is proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (Coulomb's law). The capacitance C (unit: F or μF) of a "capacitor" with a dielectric (insulator) between two metal plates is proportional to permittivity and plate area S, and inversely proportional to plate separation d.

When voltage V (V) is applied to a capacitor of capacitance C (F), the stored electric charge Q (C: coulomb) is "Q = C × V", and the stored electrostatic energy W (J) is expressed as "W = 0.5 × C × V²".

When multiple capacitors are connected in "parallel", the equivalent capacitance C is the simple sum of each capacitance, "C = C1 + C2 + C3", just like increasing plate area (note that this is opposite to the series-parallel formulas for resistors).

Conversely, when capacitors are connected in "series", the equivalent capacitance C is found from the sum of reciprocals "1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3". For 2 in series, "C = (C1 × C2) ÷ (C1 + C2)", and for 3 in series, "C = (C1 × C2 × C3) ÷ (C1×C2 + C2×C3 + C3×C1)".

Furthermore, when voltage is applied across series-connected capacitors, the stored charge Q on each capacitor is equal, and the voltage divided across each capacitor is "inversely proportional to its capacitance C" (smaller-capacitance capacitors bear higher voltage).

Key points


  • Capacitor charge is "Q = C × V", energy is "W = 0.5 × C × V²", and capacitance is proportional to area and inversely proportional to plate spacing

  • Parallel equivalent capacitance is "C = C1 + C2 + C3", and series equivalent capacitance is the reciprocal sum "1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3"

  • The series equivalent capacitance of 3 capacitors C1, C2, C3 is expressed as "(C1 × C2 × C3) ÷ (C1×C2 + C2×C3 + C3×C1)"
WordMeaning
Coulomb's law and capacitance (C)
Electric charge (Q = C × V) and electrostatic energy
Parallel and series equivalent capacitance of capacitors
Inverse-proportion voltage division in series capacitors

Magnetic Effect of Current, Fleming's Left-Hand and Right-Hand Rules, and Lenz's Law

Passing current through a wire generates a magnetic field around it in the rotational direction that advances a right-handed screw. This is called "Ampere's right-handed screw rule", which also determines the magnetic poles (N-pole, S-pole) when current flows through a solenoid (coil).

Passing current through a conductor in a magnetic field exerts an electromagnetic force F (N) whose direction follows "Fleming's left-hand rule (motor principle)". Holding the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the left hand mutually perpendicular: "middle finger = current direction, forefinger = magnetic field direction, thumb = electromagnetic force (motion) direction".

Conversely, the direction of induced EMF e (V) generated when moving a conductor in a magnetic field follows "Fleming's right-hand rule (generator principle)", where on the right hand: "thumb = conductor motion direction, forefinger = magnetic field direction, middle finger = induced EMF direction".

When magnetic flux linking a coil changes, generating an induced EMF proportional to the time rate of change of flux is called "Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction", and the fact that its direction "opposes the change in magnetic flux" is called "Lenz's law".

The principle by which the aluminum disk of an induction watt-hour meter rotates under a moving magnetic field and eddy currents while speed-controlled by a braking magnet applies this "Lenz's law (electromagnetic induction)". Also, EMF induced by a coil's own current change is called self-induction (inductance L (H)).

Key points


  • In "Fleming's left-hand rule (motors)", the middle finger indicates current, the forefinger indicates magnetic field, and the thumb indicates electromagnetic force

  • In "Fleming's right-hand rule (generators)", the thumb indicates motion, the forefinger indicates magnetic field, and the middle finger indicates induced EMF

  • In electromagnetic induction, the law that induced current flows in a "direction opposing the change in magnetic flux" is called "Lenz's law", applied in watt-hour meter disk rotation
WordMeaning
Ampere's right-handed screw rule
Fleming's left-hand rule (middle = current, forefinger = magnetic field, thumb = force)
Fleming's right-hand rule (direction of induced EMF)
Faraday's electromagnetic induction and Lenz's law

Single-Phase AC Circuits (RMS Value, Phase Difference, Reactance Calculation, Impedance)

The magnitude of sine-wave AC is normally expressed by its "effective (RMS) value", and the maximum (peak) value Vm is "root-2 times (approx. 1.41 times)" the RMS value V (V = Vm ÷ 1.41). Also, frequency f (Hz)—the number of cycles per second—and period T (s) are related by "f = 1 ÷ T".

Regarding phase difference between voltage and current in AC circuits: a pure resistor R circuit is "in phase (0° phase difference)", a pure coil (inductance L) circuit has "current lagging voltage by 90° (π/2 rad)", and a pure capacitor (capacitance C) circuit has "current leading voltage by 90° (π/2 rad)".

Inductive reactance XL (Ω) of a coil is found by "XL = 2 × π × f × L". For example, applying 100V, 50Hz to a coil of L = 5 H gives "XL = 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 5 = 1570 Ω", and a current of "I = 100 ÷ 1570 = approx. 0.064 A" flows.

Capacitive reactance of a capacitor is "XC = 1 ÷ (2 × π × f × C)". In an R-L-C series circuit, the square of impedance Z is "Z² = R² + (XL − XC)²", and when XL = XC, "series resonance" occurs, minimizing impedance (Z = R).

In a single-phase AC circuit, apparent power is "S = V × I (VA)", active power (consumed power) multiplied by power factor cosφ (= R ÷ Z) is "P = V × I × cosφ (W)", and reactive power is "Q = V × I × sinφ (var)".

Key points


  • In a pure coil (L) AC circuit, current phase "lags voltage by 90°", whereas in a pure capacitor (C) circuit it "leads by 90°"

  • Inductive reactance is "XL = 2 × π × f × L"; connecting L = 5H to a 50Hz, 100V supply gives XL = 1570Ω and I = approx. 0.064A

  • Series circuit impedance is "Z² = R² + (XL − XC)²", and power factor is expressed as "cosφ = R ÷ Z"
WordMeaning
Effective (RMS) value and maximum value (Vm = 1.41 × V)
Phase lag (coil lags by 90°) and phase lead (capacitor leads by 90°)
Inductive reactance (XL = 2 × π × f × L)
Impedance (Z) and power factor (cosφ)

Three-Phase AC Circuits (Y and △ Connections), Three-Phase Power Calculation, and Power Capacitors

Symmetrical three-phase AC consists of three single-phase AC electromotive forces of equal magnitude and frequency shifted in phase by "120° (2π/3 rad)" from each other. There are two connection methods: "star (Y) connection" and "delta (△) connection".

In a "star (Y) connection", line current Il = phase current Ip, and line-to-line voltage Vl is "root-3 times (approx. 1.73 times)" phase voltage Vp. Conversely, in a "delta (△) connection", line-to-line voltage Vl = phase voltage Vp, and line current Il is "root-3 times (approx. 1.73 times)" phase current Ip.

Active power (consumed power) P (W) of a three-phase AC circuit, in either Y or △ connection, is calculated using line-to-line voltage E (or V), line current I, and power factor cosφ by the formula "P = root-3 × E × I × cosφ (approx. 1.73 × E × I × cosφ) (W)".

Note that when using phase voltage Ep and phase current Ip, total power is 3 times one phase's power, giving "P = 3 × Ep × Ip × cosφ" (options giving a coefficient of 3 or 1/3 in the formula with line voltage and line current are incorrect).

Because loads like induction motors have a lagging power factor, a "power capacitor (phase-advancing capacitor SC)" is connected in parallel with the load inside the panel so leading reactive current cancels lagging reactive current, "improving the power factor (cosφ)" and reducing line losses. Also, a "series reactor (SR)" is connected in series with the capacitor for harmonic suppression.

Three-Phase AC Circuits (Y and △ Connections), Three-Phase Power Calculation, and Power Capacitors

Key points


  • In Y connection, "line voltage = root-3 × phase voltage"; in △ connection, "line current = root-3 × phase current" (root-3 is approx. 1.73)

  • Three-phase AC power consumption is found using line voltage E, line current I, and power factor cosφ by "P = root-3 × E × I × cosφ (W)"

  • To improve a circuit's "lagging power factor" caused by induction motors, connect a "power capacitor (phase-advancing capacitor)" in parallel with the load
WordMeaning
Star (Y) connection and delta (△) connection
Line voltage / phase voltage and line current / phase current
Three-phase active power (P = 1.73 × E × I × cosφ)
Power capacitor (phase-advancing capacitor) and power factor improvement

Semiconductor Devices (p-Type, n-Type, Diode A/K Polarity, Transistors, Thyristors)

When trace impurities are added to intrinsic semiconductors like silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge), a material with positively charged "holes" as majority carriers is called a "p-type semiconductor", and one with negatively charged "electrons (free electrons)" as majority carriers is called an "n-type semiconductor".

In a "diode (pn-junction diode)" joining p-type and n-type semiconductors, the p-type terminal is called the "Anode (A)" and the n-type terminal is called the "Cathode (K)"; in graphical symbols, the base of the triangle is the Anode (A, p-type) and the bar at the tip is the Cathode (K, n-type).

A diode has a rectifying action allowing current to flow only in the "forward direction from Anode (A) to Cathode (K)". When inserting a diode in series with a DC relay circuit, connecting the Cathode toward the positive supply terminal (reverse direction) blocks current and prevents relay operation. Note that a surge-absorbing diode is connected in parallel with the coil in reverse polarity.

A 3-terminal "transistor (pnp and npn types)" has a Base (B), Emitter (E), and Collector (C), controlling Collector current via Base current for amplification and switching. Also, when a firing pulse is applied to the Gate (G) of a "thyristor (SCR)", it conducts between Anode and Cathode and remains ON.

Other devices include "Zener diodes (voltage-regulator diodes)" using reverse constant-voltage characteristics, "light-emitting diodes (LED)" emitting light under forward current, "photocouplers" combining light-emitting and light-receiving elements to electrically isolate inputs and outputs (used in PLC I/O circuits), and "IGBTs" used in inverters.

Key points


  • In a diode, "the p-type semiconductor side is the Anode (A) and the n-type side is the Cathode (K)", allowing current to flow only in the forward direction from Anode to Cathode

  • Connecting a diode in series in the reverse direction (Cathode to positive terminal) in a DC circuit blocks current, so the electromagnetic relay coil does not operate

  • Transistors amplify and switch using 3 terminals—Base (B), Emitter (E), Collector (C)—while photocouplers transmit signals across isolated inputs and outputs via light
WordMeaning
p-type semiconductor (holes) and n-type semiconductor (electrons)
Diode Anode (A: p-type) and Cathode (K: n-type)
Transistor (B, E, C) and thyristor (A, K, G)
Photocoupler, Zener diode, and LED

Logic Circuits (AND, OR, NOT, XOR), Feedback Control, PLCs, and Sensors

"Basic logic circuits" in digital circuits include the "AND circuit (logical product: Y = A·B)" outputting 1 only when all inputs are 1, the "OR circuit (logical sum: Y = A + B)" outputting 1 if any input is 1, the "NOT circuit (inverter)" inverting the input, and their negated counterparts "NAND" and "NOR".

Furthermore, a circuit that "outputs Y = 1 only when two inputs A and B differ (one is 1 and the other is 0)" and outputs 0 when both are 0 or both are 1 is called an "exclusive-OR circuit (XOR)", expressed by the Boolean equation "Y = A·not-B + not-A·B".

Automatic control is broadly divided into "sequence control", which proceeds according to a predetermined order or conditions, and "feedback control", which detects the controlled object's output (controlled variable), feeds it back to the input, and "compares it with the target value (setpoint) to perform corrective action so they match".

A "PLC (programmable logic controller)" serving as the brain of a control panel consists of a CPU, memory, input units, and output units, repeatedly scanning the program from start to end. Output units include AC/DC "relay outputs", high-speed DC "transistor outputs", and AC "triac outputs".

Sensors connected to PLCs and control circuits include contact-type "limit switches", non-contact "proximity switches (high-frequency oscillation and capacitive types)" and "photoelectric switches (through-beam and reflective types)" detecting metal or objects, plus temperature-measuring "thermocouples (Seebeck effect)" and "platinum resistance temperature detectors (Pt100)".

Logic Circuits (AND, OR, NOT, XOR), Feedback Control, PLCs, and Sensors

Key points


  • The Boolean expression for an "exclusive-OR (XOR) circuit" that outputs 1 only when two inputs A and B differ is "Y = A·not-B + not-A·B"

  • The control method that detects output (controlled variable), compares it with the target value, and automatically adjusts them to match is called "feedback control"

  • A PLC program operates by a "scanning method" that cyclically repeats input reading, program execution, and output updating
WordMeaning
Basic logic circuits (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR)
Exclusive-OR circuit (XOR: Y = A·not-B + not-A·B)
Sequence control and feedback control (comparison with target value)
PLC (programmable logic controller) and proximity / photoelectric switches

Circuit Theory, Electronics & Control

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Official references

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