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Power Distribution, Power Factor & Short-Circuit

Class 1 Electrician 第一種電気工事士 (written exam) · 第一種電気工事士(学科試験) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Voltage Drop in HV/LV Three-Phase 3-Wire Lines (Resistance r and Reactance x) and Multi-Point Loads

Questions 6 through 9 of the First-Class Electrician exam are calculation problems on "Power Distribution Theory and Wiring Design." While wire reactance x is ignored in the Second-Class exam, high-voltage lines in the First-Class exam require considering both resistance r (Ω) and inductive reactance x (Ω) per wire.

In a three-phase 3-wire line (line current I, load power factor cosθ, lagging reactive factor sinθ), the line-to-line voltage drop ΔV (V) is found by the formula "ΔV = Vs − Vr = √3 × I × (r × cosθ + x × sinθ)". For a single-phase 2-wire line, the factor is 2 instead of √3: "ΔV = 2 × I × (r × cosθ + x × sinθ)".

In a three-phase 4-wire system (such as 400V/230V) supplying a balanced three-phase load, no current flows through the neutral wire. Thus, the voltage drop per wire (phase voltage drop) is "I × r", and the line-to-line voltage drop is "√3 × I × r", just like a three-phase 3-wire line.

In a multi-point load circuit where loads are connected at both an intermediate point B and the end point C, note that the section from the source to point B carries the combined current "current at B + current at C"; calculate the voltage drop of each section separately and add them together.

Voltage Drop in HV/LV Three-Phase 3-Wire Lines (Resistance r and Reactance x) and Multi-Point Loads

Key points


  • Line-to-line voltage drop in a three-phase 3-wire line including reactance x is "ΔV = √3 × I × (r × cosθ + x × sinθ) (V)".

  • Use the 3 : 4 : 5 right-triangle ratio for fast mental math: when cosθ = 0.8, sinθ = 0.6; when cosθ = 0.6, sinθ = 0.8.

  • On a distribution line with intermediate taps, the upstream section carries the sum of all downstream load currents; sum the voltage drops of each section.

  • Example: In a 3-phase 3-wire HV line with resistance r = 0.6Ω and reactance x = 0.8Ω per wire, line current I = 50A, and cosθ = 0.8 (sinθ = 0.6) → Voltage drop ΔV = 1.73 × 50 × (0.6 × 0.8 + 0.8 × 0.6) = 86.5 × 0.96 ≈ 83V
WordMeaning
voltage drop (ΔV)
line reactance (x)
reactive factor (sinθ)
three-phase 4-wire distribution system

Neutral Current with Different Power Factors, Neutral Disconnection in 1P3W and Line Power Loss

In a single-phase 3-wire circuit (such as 210V/105V), when the upper load A and lower load B have different power factors (e.g., an inductive load with cosθ = 0.5 on the upper side and a resistive load with cosθ = 1.0 on the lower side), the neutral wire current IN is not a simple subtraction (IA − IB).

When upper current IA and lower current IB have the same magnitude I and a phase difference of 60 degrees (cos60° = 0.5), the vector diagram forms an equilateral triangle, so the difference vector current IN flowing in the neutral wire has the exact same magnitude I as the outer currents (IN = I).

Furthermore, if the neutral wire breaks in a single-phase 3-wire circuit, the upper and lower 105V loads RA and RB become connected in series across the 210V outer lines. Most of the 210V then divides across whichever load has the larger resistance (smaller wattage), causing burnout from overvoltage.

For distribution line power loss Pl (W), which appears frequently in Question 7, first calculate line current I from load power P (W) and power factor cosθ. In a three-phase 3-wire line, substituting "I = P ÷ (√3 × V × cosθ)" into the 3-wire loss formula "Pl = 3 × I² × r" gives "Pl = (P² × r) ÷ (V² × cos²θ)".

Key points


  • In a 1-phase 3-wire circuit where the upper load has cosθ = 0.5 (lagging), the lower load has cosθ = 1.0, and both carry current I, the 60° phase difference makes the neutral current IN equal to "I".

  • If the neutral wire of a 1-phase 3-wire line breaks, 210V divides across the upper and lower loads in proportion to resistance, applying dangerous overvoltage to the higher-resistance appliance.

  • Transmission line loss Pl for a load of power factor cosθ is inversely proportional to "cos²θ" because current "I = P ÷ (V × cosθ)" is inversely proportional to cosθ.

  • Example: In a 1-phase 3-wire line (100V/200V, resistance r = 0.2Ω per wire) where both upper and lower loads are identical 100V, 1.6kW, cosθ = 0.8 loads → Line current I = 1,600 ÷ (100 × 0.8) = 20A, neutral current is 0 A, total line loss Pl = 2 × 20² × 0.2 = 160W
WordMeaning
neutral wire current (IN)
overvoltage due to neutral disconnection
line power loss (Pl)
vector composition

High-Voltage Power Capacitors (SC), Series Reactors (SR) and Power Factor Improvement

Because induction motors in factories and buildings operate at a lagging power factor, "high-voltage power capacitors (SC)" are connected in parallel at the receiving facility to supply leading reactive power and bring the overall power factor cosθ closer to 1 (100%).

When three capacitors of capacitance C (F) per phase are connected in "star (Y)" across a three-phase source of line voltage V (V) and frequency f (Hz), since phase voltage is V ÷ √3, the charging current is "I = (2πfCV) ÷ √3 (A)" and the three-phase reactive power (capacity) is "Q = √3 × V × I = 2πfCV² (var)" (in Δ connection, both I and Q are 3 times larger).

When a "series reactor (SR: inductive reactance XL)" for harmonic suppression is connected in series with Y-connected capacitors (capacitive reactance XC), the net reactance per phase decreases to "XC − XL", so the three-phase capacity Q of the bank becomes "Q = V² ÷ (XC − XL) (var)".

Moreover, to find the combined apparent power S (kVA) when a resistive load (cosθ = 1.0) or capacitor is added to an existing load P (kW), sum the active powers "ΣP (kW)" and reactive powers "ΣQ (kvar)" separately, then combine them using the Pythagorean theorem: "S = √((ΣP)² + (ΣQ)²) (kVA)".

High-Voltage Power Capacitors (SC), Series Reactors (SR) and Power Factor Improvement

Key points


  • For Y-connected three-phase capacitors (capacitance C per phase), current is "I = 2πfCV ÷ √3 (A)" and three-phase capacity is "Q = 2πfCV² (var)".

  • When a series reactor XL is connected to Y-connected capacitors XC, the three-phase capacity is "Q = V² ÷ (XC − XL) (var)".

  • Combined apparent power S (kVA) of multiple loads is found from total active power ΣP and total reactive power ΣQ via "S = √((ΣP)² + (ΣQ)²)".

  • Example: Adding a 70kW electric heater (cosθ = 1.0) to a load with 90kW active power and 120kvar lagging reactive power → Total active power ΣP = 90 + 70 = 160kW, total reactive power ΣQ = 120kvar, combined apparent power S = √(160² + 120²) = 200kVA
WordMeaning
high-voltage power capacitor (SC)
series reactor (SR)
reactive power (kvar) and apparent power (kVA)
power factor improvement

Percent Impedance (%Z) and Three-Phase Short-Circuit Current (Is) Calculations

A crucial topic tested in Question 8 of every exam is "percent impedance (%Z)" and "three-phase short-circuit current Is." The circuit breaker (such as a VCB) in a high-voltage receiving facility must have sufficient breaking capacity to safely interrupt the massive current Is during a three-phase short circuit at the receiving point.

Given rated line voltage Vn (V), rated current In (A), rated capacity (base capacity) Pn = √3VnIn (VA), and impedance Z (Ω) per phase, "%Z" is the ratio of the impedance voltage drop InZ to the phase voltage Vn ÷ √3, expressed as a percentage.

Simplifying the expression gives "%Z = (√3 × In × Z ÷ Vn) × 100 = (Pn × Z ÷ Vn²) × 100 (%)". To convert a percent impedance %ZA based on capacity PA (kVA) to another base capacity PB (e.g., 10MVA = 10,000kVA), scale it proportionally to capacity: "%ZB = %ZA × (PB ÷ PA)".

Once the total percent impedance %Z (%) up to the receiving point is known, the three-phase short-circuit current Is (A) is simply "100 ÷ %Z times" the rated current In: "Is = (100 ÷ %Z) × In (A)". Specifically, for a standard base capacity of 10MVA (10,000kVA) and line voltage V (kV), "Is = 1,000 ÷ (√3 × V × Z) (kA)".

Percent Impedance (%Z) and Three-Phase Short-Circuit Current (Is) Calculations

Key points


  • The definition formula for percent impedance is "%Z = (√3 × In × Z ÷ Vn) × 100 = (Pn × Z ÷ Vn²) × 100 (%)".

  • To convert base capacity from PA to PB, multiply by the capacity ratio: "%ZB = %ZA × (PB ÷ PA)".

  • Three-phase short-circuit current Is is "Is = (100 ÷ %Z) × In (A)", and the circuit breaker's rated breaking current must exceed Is.

  • Example: Grid side %Z1 = 3.0% on a 10MVA base, connected to a 500kVA (0.5MVA) transformer with self-base %Z2 = 4.0% → Transformer %Z2' converted to 10MVA base is 4.0 × (10 ÷ 0.5) = 80%, giving total %Z = 3.0 + 80 = 83%
WordMeaning
percent impedance (%Z)
base capacity (10MVA)
three-phase short-circuit current (Is)
breaking capacity

Demand Factor, Diversity Factor, Load Factor and Transformer Tap Voltage Adjustment

To economically design transformer capacity in a receiving facility, three indicators are used: "demand factor," "diversity factor," and "load factor," because all connected load equipment rarely operates at 100% full capacity simultaneously.

"Demand factor (%)" is the ratio of maximum demand power to the total installed equipment capacity: "Maximum demand power = Total installed capacity × Demand factor". The demand factor is normally 100% or less.

"Diversity factor (不等率)" represents how much the peak demand times of different load groups are staggered, defined as "Diversity factor = Sum of individual maximum demands ÷ Combined maximum demand" (always 1.0 or greater). "Load factor (%)" is "Average demand power ÷ Maximum demand power × 100".

Meanwhile, a high-voltage receiving transformer has "taps (turns-adjustment terminals such as 6,750V, 6,600V, 6,450V, 6,300V)" on its primary winding. Because secondary voltage V2 is inversely proportional to primary tap voltage Vt, lowering the primary tap from 6,600V to 6,300V raises the secondary voltage by "6,600 ÷ 6,300 times".

Key points


  • Combined maximum demand power is found by "Sum of (Installed capacity × Demand factor) ÷ Diversity factor" (diversity factor is always ≥ 1).

  • Load factor (%) is "Average demand power ÷ Maximum demand power × 100", indicating how evenly the facility is utilized.

  • Changing the primary tap voltage of a transformer from Vt1 to Vt2 changes the secondary voltage V2 in inverse proportion: "V2' = V2 × (Vt1 ÷ Vt2)".

  • Example: A transformer giving 200V secondary voltage on the 6,600V primary tap is switched to the 6,300V primary tap → New secondary voltage V2' = 200 × (6,600 ÷ 6,300) ≈ 210V (rises by about 10V)
WordMeaning
demand factor and maximum demand power
diversity factor (1.0 or greater)
load factor and average demand power
transformer tap voltage

Guy Wire Horizontal Tension, LV Branch Circuit Design and Voltage to Ground Under Bolted Ground Fault

Question 9 tests the calculation of "guy wire tension" supporting a utility pole, "branch wire size and length" tapped from a low-voltage feeder, or "enclosure voltage to ground" during a complete ground fault on the low-voltage side.

When a guy wire (tensile strength TS, safety factor K) is installed at an angle θ (often 30°) to a utility pole, the maximum horizontal tension T it can support is the allowable tension "TS ÷ K" multiplied by "sinθ": "T = (TS ÷ K) × sinθ" (where sin30° = 0.5).

When tapping a branch circuit from a low-voltage feeder protected by an overcurrent breaker rated at IB, a breaker must normally be installed within 3m of the tap point; however, if the branch wire allowable current Iw is "at least 35% of IB, it can extend up to 8m", and if "at least 55% of IB, there is no length limit".

Furthermore, in a transformer secondary circuit (line voltage V = 210V, etc.) where one wire has Class B grounding resistance RB and a load enclosure has Class D grounding resistance RD, if the ungrounded wire suffers a complete ground fault to the enclosure, the enclosure voltage to ground VA is found by voltage division across RD: "VA = V × RD ÷ (RB + RD) (V)".

Key points


  • Maximum horizontal tension T supported by a guy wire at angle θ to a pole is "T = (Tensile strength TS ÷ Safety factor K) × sinθ" (sin30° = 0.5).

  • Tap distance from feeder breaker IB: normally ≤ 3m; if branch allowable current "Iw ≥ 0.35 × IB then ≤ 8m", if "Iw ≥ 0.55 × IB then unlimited".

  • During a complete ground fault to an enclosure (ground resistance RD) in a secondary circuit of V (V), enclosure voltage to ground is "VA = V × RD ÷ (RB + RD) (V)".

  • Example: With secondary voltage V = 210V, Class B ground resistance RB = 10Ω, and Class D ground resistance RD = 40Ω on an enclosure during a complete ground fault → Enclosure voltage to ground VA = 210 × 40 ÷ (10 + 40) = 168V (do not put RB in the numerator to get 42V!)
WordMeaning
horizontal tension of guy wire and safety factor
3m and 8m feeder tap rules
complete ground fault and voltage to ground
allowable current (Iw)

Key Exam Points & How to Remember

In Question 6 on single-phase 3-wire circuits, if a problem states "upper load power factor cosθ = 0.5, lower load power factor cosθ = 1.0, and both upper and lower currents have the same magnitude I (A)", no calculation is needed: the neutral wire current IN is "equal to I (A) itself" (e.g., if both are 20A, neutral current is also 20A because the vectors form a 60° equilateral triangle).

In Question 7 symbolic formulas for line power loss in a three-phase 3-wire line, substituting line current "I = P ÷ (√3Vcosφ)" into "Pl = 3I²r" neatly cancels the 3 in the numerator with (√3)² = 3 in the denominator, leaving the clean coefficient-free formula "Pl = P²r ÷ (V²cos²φ)".

In Questions 8 and 9, the formulas for three-phase short-circuit current "Is = (100 ÷ %Z) × In", Y-connected high-voltage capacitor capacity "Q = 2πfCV²", and capacity with a series reactor "Q = V² ÷ (XC − XL)" appear repeatedly in past exams—memorize them verbatim.

Key points


  • 3-phase 3-wire voltage drop: "ΔV = √3 × I × (r × cosθ + x × sinθ)"; 3-phase line power loss: "Pl = 3I²r = P²r ÷ (V²cos²φ)".

  • Percent impedance and short-circuit current: "%Z = (Pn × Z ÷ Vn²) × 100", 3-phase short-circuit current "Is = (100 ÷ %Z) × In".

  • Y-connected HV capacitors: "I = 2πfCV ÷ √3 (A)" and "Q = 2πfCV² (var)"; with series reactor SR: "Q = V² ÷ (XC − XL) (var)".

  • Demand, diversity, and load factors: Max demand = Installed × Demand factor; Combined max = Sum of max demands ÷ Diversity factor; Average = Max × Load factor.

  • Enclosure voltage to ground during complete ground fault: "VA = V × RD ÷ (RB + RD)" (the numerator is always the enclosure's Class D resistance RD).
WordMeaning
equilateral triangle vectors (60° phase difference)
3-phase line loss formula (P²r ÷ V²cos²φ)
base capacity conversion
ground fault voltage via voltage division

Power Distribution & Wiring Design

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