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Basic Electrical Theory & Three-Phase AC

Class 1 Electrician 第一種電気工事士 (written exam) · 第一種電気工事士(学科試験) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Coulomb's Law and Electric Field & Capacitance of Parallel-Plate Capacitors

In the First-Class Electrician written exam, Question 1 is always a calculation problem on electrostatics or electromagnetism. Although this topic does not appear in the Second-Class exam, memorizing the basic formula shapes guarantees full marks.

The electrostatic force F (N) acting between two point charges Q1 (C) and Q2 (C) placed in air is directly proportional to the product of the charges "Q1 × Q2" and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r (m) between them, "r²". This is called Coulomb's Law.

When two facing metal plates (electrodes) are separated by a distance d (m) and a voltage V (V) is applied, a uniform electric field is created between the plates. The electric field strength E (V/m) is found by "E = V ÷ d" and is inversely proportional to the distance d.

The capacitance C (F) of a parallel-plate capacitor is directly proportional to the plate area S (m²) and the permittivity ε (epsilon) of the insulator, and inversely proportional to the plate separation d (m) (C = ε × S ÷ d). Wider plates and a narrower gap allow more electric charge to be stored.

Coulomb's Law and Electric Field & Capacitance of Parallel-Plate Capacitors

Key points


  • Coulomb's Law: Electrostatic force F is proportional to the charge product "Q1 × Q2" and inversely proportional to distance squared "r²" (doubling distance reduces force to 1/4).

  • Electric field strength E (V/m) of a parallel-plate capacitor is calculated by "E = V ÷ d" (always convert distance d into meters m).

  • Capacitance C (F) is given by "C = ε × S ÷ d"; inserting a dielectric with relative permittivity εr multiplies the capacitance by εr.

  • Example: Applying DC voltage V = 200V across a parallel-plate capacitor with plate separation d = 4mm (0.004m) → Electric field strength E = 200 ÷ 0.004 = 50,000V/m = 50kV/m
WordMeaning
Coulomb's law
electric field strength (E = V ÷ d)
capacitance (C)
permittivity (ε)

Series-Parallel Capacitors, Voltage Division and Electrostatic Energy

When a voltage V (V) is applied to a capacitor of capacitance C (F), the stored electric charge Q (C: coulomb) is "Q = C × V", and the electrostatic energy W (J: joule) stored inside the capacitor is "W = 0.5 × C × V² = 0.5 × Q × V".

Unit conversion requires special care on the exam. Because capacitance is usually given in "μF (microfarads = 10⁻⁶F)", when the voltage V is several hundred to several thousand volts, you must multiply by 10⁻⁶ to convert the result into joules (J).

When connecting multiple capacitors, the formulas for combined capacitance C are the exact opposite of those for resistors. Parallel connection increases the effective plate area and gives a simple sum "C = C1 + C2", whereas series connection follows product over sum "C = (C1 × C2) ÷ (C1 + C2)".

When two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series across a source voltage V, both capacitors store the exact same charge Q. Consequently, the voltage across each capacitor divides in inverse proportion to its capacitance, meaning the smaller capacitor bears the higher voltage.

Key points


  • Stored charge is "Q = C × V (C)" and electrostatic energy is "W = 0.5 × C × V² (J)" (remember 1μF = 10⁻⁶F).

  • Combined capacitance is opposite to resistance: parallel connection adds as "C1 + C2", and two in series use "(C1 × C2) ÷ (C1 + C2)".

  • In a series connection, charge Q is equal and voltage divides in inverse proportion to capacitance: "V1 = V × C2 ÷ (C1 + C2)".

  • Example: Charging a capacitor of C = 20μF to a DC voltage of V = 500V → Electrostatic energy W = 0.5 × (20 × 10⁻⁶) × 500² = 2.5J
WordMeaning
electrostatic energy (W = 0.5CV²)
electric charge (Q = CV)
combined capacitance
inverse-capacitance voltage division

Electromagnetic Induction, Self-Inductance and Iron-Core Coil Characteristics

When the magnetic flux φ (weber: Wb) passing through a coil changes over time, an induced electromotive force e (V) is generated in a direction that opposes the change (Lenz's Law). This is Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction, the operating principle of transformers and generators.

The magnitude of the electromotive force induced when the current I (A) in the coil itself changes is expressed using self-inductance L (henry: H) as "e = L × (ΔI ÷ Δt)". The electromagnetic energy stored in the coil is "W = 0.5 × L × I² (J)".

The self-inductance L of a coil is directly proportional to the magnetic permeability μ (mu) and cross-sectional area S of the iron core, inversely proportional to the magnetic path length l, and proportional to the "square of the number of turns N (N²)". Doubling the turns N quadruples the inductance L.

Therefore, when AC voltage V (frequency f) is applied to an iron-core coil, the current "I = V ÷ XL" is limited by the inductive reactance "XL = 2πfL". Pulling out the iron core while energized drastically reduces permeability μ, lowering L and XL and causing an excessive current I to flow.

Key points


  • Self-induced EMF is "e = L × (ΔI ÷ Δt) (V)", and electromagnetic energy stored in a coil is "W = 0.5 × L × I² (J)".

  • Self-inductance L (H) of a coil is proportional to permeability μ and the square of the number of turns "N²".

  • Removing the iron core from an AC-energized coil decreases inductance L and causes the current I to increase sharply.

  • Example: When a current I = 5A flows through a coil with self-inductance L = 0.4H → Stored electromagnetic energy W = 0.5 × 0.4 × 5² = 5J
WordMeaning
law of electromagnetic induction
self-inductance (L)
magnetic permeability (μ)
electromagnetic energy (W = 0.5LI²)

Kirchhoff's Laws (Two-Source Circuits) and Wheatstone Bridge Circuits

Question 2 always features one DC circuit calculation problem. The First-Class exam frequently tests not only series-parallel combinations, but also DC circuits with two voltage sources and finding the potential difference (voltage Vab) between two nodes of a bridge circuit.

Kirchhoff's First Law (Current Law) states that "the sum of currents entering a junction equals the sum of currents leaving it," and the Second Law (Voltage Law) states that "around any closed loop, the algebraic sum of electromotive forces equals the sum of voltage drops (I × R)."

In a Wheatstone bridge circuit with four resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4 arranged in a diamond, when the products of opposite resistor arms are equal ("R1 × R4 = R2 × R3"), the bridge is balanced and the current through the center galvanometer (or ammeter) is 0 A.

To find the potential difference Vab between two center nodes a–b in an unbalanced bridge circuit, choose a reference node (0 V), calculate the potentials Va and Vb of each branch separately using voltage division, and take their difference "Vab = |Va − Vb|" for an instant solution.

Key points


  • Kirchhoff's 1st Law: "Inflow current = outflow current at a node"; 2nd Law: "Sum of EMFs = sum of voltage drops around a closed loop".

  • The Wheatstone bridge balance condition is equal products of opposite arms "R1 × R4 = R2 × R3", making the center branch current 0 A.

  • Voltage Vab between two nodes a–b is found by calculating potentials Va and Vb via voltage division on each series branch and subtracting.

  • Example: With a 100V source where the left branch has 20Ω and 30Ω in series and the right branch has 25Ω and 25Ω in series → Midpoint potentials are Va = 100 × 30 ÷ 50 = 60V and Vb = 100 × 25 ÷ 50 = 50V, so Vab = 60 − 50 = 10V
WordMeaning
Kirchhoff's laws
Wheatstone bridge circuit
balance condition (R1 × R4 = R2 × R3)
potential difference (Vab)

Sinusoidal AC (Period, Frequency, Angular Frequency) and Reactance Under Frequency Change

Question 3 covers single-phase AC circuits. The time required for a sinusoidal AC wave to complete one full cycle is the "period T (s: seconds)", and the number of cycles repeated per second is the "frequency f (Hz: hertz)", related by "f = 1 ÷ T".

The angle in radians advanced per second is called the "angular frequency ω (omega: rad/s)", calculated as "ω = 2πf = 2π ÷ T (π ≈ 3.14)". At frequency f = 50Hz (period T = 20ms = 0.02s), the angular frequency is "ω = 2 × 3.14 × 50 = 314 rad/s".

The peak value Vm of a sine wave is √2 times the RMS value V (Vm = √2 × V ≈ 1.41 × V), and the average value Vav is 2 ÷ π times the peak value. Standard ratings such as 100V or 200V always represent the "RMS (effective) value".

Inductive reactance of a coil "XL = ωL = 2πfL (Ω)" is proportional to frequency f, while capacitive reactance of a capacitor "XC = 1 ÷ (ωC) = 1 ÷ (2πfC) (Ω)" is inversely proportional to frequency f. When power frequency changes from 50Hz to 60Hz (1.2 times), XL increases by 1.2 times and XC decreases to 1 ÷ 1.2 times.

Key points


  • Frequency is "f = 1 ÷ T (Hz)" and angular frequency is "ω = 2πf (rad/s)"; for f = 50Hz (T = 20ms), "ω ≈ 314 rad/s".

  • The peak value of sinusoidal AC is √2 times the RMS value: "Vm = √2 × V".

  • Coil reactance "XL = 2πfL" is proportional to frequency f, whereas capacitor reactance "XC = 1 ÷ (2πfC)" is inversely proportional to f.

  • Example: A series circuit with XL = 10Ω and XC = 12Ω at 50Hz is connected to a 60Hz (1.2×) source → New XL' = 10 × 1.2 = 12Ω and XC' = 12 ÷ 1.2 = 10Ω, giving net reactance X = 12 − 10 = 2Ω
WordMeaning
period (T) and frequency (f)
angular frequency (ω = 2πf)
inductive reactance (XL)
capacitive reactance (XC)

Single-Phase R-L-C Series/Parallel Circuits, Resonance and Half-Wave Rectifier Circuits

In a circuit with resistance R and reactances XL, XC in series, total impedance Z (Ω) is "Z = √(R² + (XL − XC)²)" and power factor cosθ is "cosθ = R ÷ Z". When XL = XC, series resonance occurs: the reactances cancel out, yielding "Z = R and power factor cosθ = 1 (100%)".

Conversely, in a parallel circuit with a resistance branch R and a reactance branch X, the same source voltage V is applied to each branch. Because resistor current "IR = V ÷ R" and reactance current "IX = V ÷ X" are 90 degrees out of phase, total current is "I = √(IR² + IX²)" and power factor is "cosθ = IR ÷ I".

A frequent Question 4 topic is finding the power consumption P of a "half-wave rectifier circuit" consisting of an AC source (RMS voltage V), a single ideal "semiconductor diode", and a resistor R connected in series.

Because a diode conducts current in only one direction (forward bias), current flows only during the positive half-cycle of each AC period and is 0 A during the negative half-cycle. Consequently, the average power P consumed by resistor R is "exactly half (1/2)" that without a diode: "P = V² ÷ (2 × R) (W)".

Single-Phase R-L-C Series/Parallel Circuits, Resonance and Half-Wave Rectifier Circuits

Key points


  • In an R-X parallel circuit, form a right triangle of branch currents to find total current "I = √(IR² + IX²)" and power factor "cosθ = IR ÷ I".

  • At resonance where XL = XC, reactive currents or voltages cancel out, making the overall circuit power factor cosθ = 1 (100%).

  • In a single-diode half-wave rectifier circuit, current flows for only half a cycle, so power consumed in resistor R is halved: "P = V² ÷ (2 × R) (W)".

  • Example: Connecting a diode and resistor R = 10Ω in series with a sinusoidal AC source of RMS voltage V = 100V → Power consumed P = 100² ÷ (2 × 10) = 500W (watch out for the 1,000W trap!)
WordMeaning
impedance (Z) and power factor (cosθ)
resonance state (XL = XC)
half-wave rectifier circuit
semiconductor diode

Balanced Three-Phase 3-Wire AC Circuits (Y Connection, Δ Connection, Δ-Y Conversion)

Question 5 is always a three-phase AC calculation problem. In a star (Y) connection, line current Il equals phase current Ip (Il = Ip), and line-to-line voltage Vl is √3 times phase voltage Vp (Vl = √3 × Vp, so Vp = Vl ÷ √3).

In a delta (Δ) connection, line-to-line voltage Vl equals phase voltage Vp (Vl = Vp), and line current Il is √3 times phase current Ip (Il = √3 × Ip). In either connection, three-phase active power P is "P = √3 × Vl × Il × cosθ = 3 × Ip² × R (W)".

An essential First-Class shortcut is "Δ-Y equivalent conversion." Three resistors of RΔ (Ω) per phase connected in Δ are completely equivalent to a Y-connected load whose resistance per phase is "one-third (RY = RΔ ÷ 3)" (conversely, switching a load from Y to Δ triples both line current and power).

Using this conversion, even when a circuit includes line resistance r or combines a Y load and a Δ load in parallel, you can replace the Δ load with an equivalent Y load of "RY = RΔ ÷ 3" and easily compute the line current Il using a single-phase equivalent circuit.

Balanced Three-Phase 3-Wire AC Circuits (Y Connection, Δ Connection, Δ-Y Conversion)

Key points


  • Y connection: "Vp = Vl ÷ √3, Il = Ip"; Δ connection: "Vp = Vl, Il = √3 × Ip"; 3-phase power: "P = √3 × Vl × Il × cosθ = 3 × Ip² × R".

  • Δ-Y equivalent conversion: A Δ-connected impedance ZΔ can be replaced by a Y-connected impedance of one-third its value: "ZY = ZΔ ÷ 3".

  • When a Y load (R per phase) and a Δ load (R per phase) are connected in parallel across line voltage V, the Δ load draws 3 times the line current of the Y load, giving a total line current of "4V ÷ (√3R)".

  • Example: A 3-phase source of line voltage V = 200V feeds a Y load with R = 8Ω and XL = 6Ω (Z = 10Ω) per phase → Phase voltage Vp = 200 ÷ 1.73 ≈ 115.6V, line current Il = 115.6 ÷ 10 ≈ 11.6A, voltage across R is VR = 11.6 × 8 ≈ 92.5V
WordMeaning
Y connection (star connection)
Δ connection (delta connection)
Δ-Y equivalent conversion (RY = RΔ ÷ 3)
three-phase power consumption

Key Exam Points & How to Remember

In Question 1 capacitor calculations, unit conversion of "1μF = 10⁻⁶F" and "1mm = 10⁻³m" is the deciding factor. For electrostatic energy "W = 0.5 × C × V²", the choices always include a distractor that forgets the 0.5 factor (twice the true value), so stay alert.

The "half-wave rectifier circuit with one diode" in Question 4 is a frequent bonus question. Because only the top half of the waveform passes through, immediately answer that power consumption P is half that of a normal AC circuit: "P = V² ÷ (2R)".

In Question 5 on three-phase AC, symbolic formula questions for power P or current I are also common. When one phase of a Δ load has impedance "Z = √(R² + X²)", phase current is "Ip = V ÷ Z" and total 3-phase power is "P = 3 × Ip² × R = 3V²R ÷ (R² + X²)".

Key points


  • Three core capacitor formulas: Electric field "E = V ÷ d (V/m)", Charge "Q = CV (C)", Electrostatic energy "W = 0.5CV² (J)".

  • Bridge balance condition: When opposite resistor products are equal "R1 × R4 = R2 × R3", current in the center branch is 0 A.

  • When frequency f changes from 50Hz → 60Hz (1.2×), coil reactance XL "increases by 1.2×" and capacitor reactance XC "decreases by 1 ÷ 1.2×".

  • Half-wave rectifier rule: Inserting one series diode cuts the power consumed by resistor R in half to "P = V² ÷ (2R)".

  • Δ-Y conversion rule: Resistance RΔ in delta equals "RY = RΔ ÷ 3" in star; for identical resistors, delta draws 3 times the line current and power of star.
WordMeaning
unit conversion (μF, mm)
half-wave rectifier power (V² ÷ 2R)
series resonance and parallel resonance
per-phase equivalent circuit

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