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Generators, Transformers, Motors, Electrical Applications, and Sequence Control

Class 1 Electrician 第一種電気工事士 (written exam) · 第一種電気工事士(学科試験) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Rotational Speed and Starting Methods of Three-Phase Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors

In a three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor (三相かご形誘導電動機), which is the most widely used motor in factory and building power equipment, supplying three-phase AC current to the stator (固定子) windings generates a rotating magnetic field (回転磁界). The speed of this rotating magnetic field is called the synchronous speed Ns (min⁻¹), calculated from the power supply frequency f (Hz) and number of magnetic poles p as Ns = 120 × f ÷ p.

The actual rotational speed N (min⁻¹) of the rotor (回転子) is slightly slower than the synchronous speed Ns, and the ratio of this speed difference is defined as slip (滑り) s = (Ns − N) ÷ Ns. Therefore, the rotational speed is N = Ns × (1 − s) = (120 × f ÷ p) × (1 − s), changing almost in direct proportion to the frequency f.

By using an inverter (インバータ — VVVF: Variable Voltage Variable Frequency controller) to continuously vary the frequency while keeping the ratio of voltage V to frequency f (V ÷ f) constant, the rotational speed can be controlled efficiently without saturating the magnetic flux. Exam questions frequently ask you to calculate the rotational speed N when the frequency is changed from 60Hz to 50Hz or 45Hz.

In full-voltage starting (全電圧始動 — direct-on-line starting じか入れ始動), where a squirrel-cage induction motor is connected directly to the power source, a large starting current (始動電流) of 5 to 8 times the rated current flows. For large-capacity motors, to suppress the starting current, the star-delta (Y-Δ始動法) starting method is used: the stator windings are connected in star (Y) during starting and switched to delta (Δ) after acceleration.

In Y-Δ starting, the voltage applied to each phase winding becomes 1 ÷ √3 times that of full-voltage starting (Δ connection), so both the line current on the supply side (starting current) and the starting torque (始動トルク) decrease to 1 ÷ 3 (approximately 33%) of their full-voltage starting values. Note that secondary resistance starting (二次抵抗始動法) is exclusively for wound-rotor induction motors (巻線形誘導電動機) and cannot be used for squirrel-cage motors.

Rotational Speed and Starting Methods of Three-Phase Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors

Key points


  • Synchronous speed Ns = 120 × f ÷ p (min⁻¹), actual rotational speed N = Ns × (1 − s). For 4 poles: Ns = 1,500 min⁻¹ at 50Hz, and Ns = 1,800 min⁻¹ at 60Hz

  • In Y-Δ starting, compared to full-voltage starting, phase voltage is 1 ÷ √3 times, while both starting current (line current) and starting torque become 1 ÷ 3 times

  • Starting methods for squirrel-cage motors include direct-on-line, Y-Δ, reactor, and autotransformer starting; secondary resistance starting is exclusively for wound-rotor motors

  • When upgrading to a high-efficiency Top Runner motor (IE3), rated efficiency and rotational speed increase, but be careful that the starting current is larger than in conventional motors
WordMeaning
同期速度 (どうきそくど): Synchronous speed (Ns = 120f ÷ p)
滑り (すべり): Slip (s = (Ns − N) ÷ Ns)
かご形誘導電動機 (かごがたゆうどうでんどうき): Squirrel-cage induction motor
スター・デルタ始動 (しどう): Star-delta (Y-Δ) starting
インバータ制御 (せいぎょ): Inverter control (VVVF)
巻線形誘導電動機 (まきせんがたゆうどうでんどうき): Wound-rotor induction motor

Transformer Losses, Maximum Efficiency Condition, and Thermal Classes

Transformer (変圧器) losses are divided into two types: no-load loss (無負荷損 — iron loss 鉄損 Pi), which occurs at a constant rate regardless of load size, and load loss (負荷損 — copper loss 銅損 Pc), which increases in proportion to the square of the load current (or the square of the load factor m). Iron loss consists of hysteresis loss (ヒステリシス損) and eddy-current loss (渦電流損), and is reduced by using silicon steel sheets (ケイ素鋼板) or amorphous alloys (アモルファス合金) for the iron core.

When a transformer with rated capacity Pn (W) is operated at a load factor m (0 ≤ m ≤ 1) and power factor cosθ, its output is Pout = m × Pn × cosθ, and the copper loss at that time is expressed using the full-load copper loss Pc0 as m² × Pc0. Therefore, the efficiency η is calculated by Pout ÷ (Pout + Pi + m² × Pc0) × 100 (%).

The efficiency η of a transformer reaches its maximum when the no-load loss (iron loss Pi) equals the operating load loss (copper loss m² × Pc0), that is, when Pi = m² × Pc0. From this, the load factor m at maximum efficiency is found by m = √(Pi ÷ Pc0), which appears almost every year as a calculation problem.

In receiving rooms of buildings and hospitals, flame-retardant cast-resin transformers (モールド変圧器), in which high-voltage windings are encapsulated in epoxy resin (エポキシ樹脂) without using insulating oil, are widely used. In photo identification questions, distinguish that the thick busbars at the top are the low-voltage secondary terminals (低圧二次端子), the thin insulator terminals are the high-voltage primary terminals (高圧一次端子), and the link plates near the center are the tap terminals (タップ端子) for voltage adjustment.

Furthermore, insulating materials of transformers and motors are classified into thermal classes (耐熱クラス — JIS C 4003) according to their maximum permissible temperature. In ascending order of permissible temperature, they are Y (90℃) < A (105℃) < E (120℃) < B (130℃) < F (155℃) < H (180℃) < C (over 180℃); the order and temperatures of E, B, F, and H are especially frequent on the exam.

Transformer Losses, Maximum Efficiency Condition, and Thermal Classes

Key points


  • No-load loss (iron loss Pi = hysteresis loss + eddy-current loss) is constant regardless of load; load loss (copper loss) is proportional to the square of load current (load factor m)

  • The maximum efficiency condition is Iron loss Pi = Operating copper loss m² × Pc0, and the load factor at maximum efficiency is m = √(Pi ÷ Pc0)

  • Cast-resin transformers use epoxy resin insulation, offering flame retardancy and easy maintenance, though they are more expensive than oil-immersed transformers

  • Thermal classes of insulating materials: Y (90℃) < A (105℃) < E (120℃) < B (130℃) < F (155℃) < H (180℃) < C (over 180℃)
WordMeaning
無負荷損・鉄損 (むふかそん・てつそん): No-load loss / Iron loss (Pi)
負荷損・銅損 (ふかそん・どうそん): Load loss / Copper loss (Pc)
ヒステリシス損 (そん): Hysteresis loss
渦電流損 (うずでんりゅうそん): Eddy-current loss
モールド変圧器 (へんあつき): Cast-resin (molded) transformer
耐熱クラス (たいねつくらす): Thermal class (Y, A, E, B, F, H, C)

Lighting, Electric Heating Calculations, and Special Location Equipment

Memorize the four fundamental quantities of lighting engineering together with their units. The total amount of light emitted from a light source is luminous flux F (光束, unit: lm lumen), the strength of light in a specific direction is luminous intensity I (光度, cd candela), the brightness of an illuminated surface is illuminance E (照度, lx lux), and the brilliance (glare) of a light source or reflecting surface is luminance L (輝度, cd/m²).

LED lamps utilize electroluminescence (エレクトロルミネセンス — EL), passing current through a semiconductor p-n junction to emit light directly, which differs in principle from fluorescent lamps (photoluminescence ホトルミネセンス) that shine ultraviolet rays onto phosphor. Also, for ceilings with thermal insulation construction, select S-type (SB-type, SG-type) recessed downlights designed for insulated ceilings.

When heating a mass m (kg) of water by a temperature difference Δt (℃ or K) with an electric heater, taking the specific heat of water as 4.2 kJ/(kg·K), thermal efficiency as η (decimal), and electrical energy 1kWh = 3,600kJ, the required electrical energy W (kWh) is found by W = (4.2 × m × Δt) ÷ (3,600 × η). In natural refrigerant heat pump water heaters (エコキュート — EcoCute), carbon dioxide (CO₂) is used as the refrigerant.

In industrial electric heating, it is important to distinguish between induction heating (誘導加熱), which melts metals using eddy currents induced by alternating magnetic flux; dielectric heating (誘電加熱 — the principle of microwave ovens), which heats insulators such as wood and plastics uniformly from the inside using a high-frequency electric field; and infrared heating (赤外線加熱), which dries surfaces with electromagnetic waves from heaters placed slightly away from the heated object.

In photo identification of factory equipment, explosion-proof luminaires (防爆形照明器具) equipped with robust glass globes and protective guards for use in hazardous locations containing flammable gases or vapors, and bus ducts (バスダクト) that support large-current conductors (copper or aluminum) with insulators inside a steel duct for factory trunk lines, frequently appear on the exam.

Key points


  • Luminous flux = lumen (lm), Luminous intensity = candela (cd), Illuminance = lux (lx), Luminance = cd/m². LEDs use electroluminescence (rated life approx. 40,000 hours)

  • Electrical energy for water heating W (kWh) = 4.2 × m (kg) × Δt (K) ÷ (3,600 × η). Do not forget the conversion 1 kWh = 3,600 kJ

  • Melting metals (conductors) via eddy currents is induction heating (誘導加熱); internal heating of wood and plastics (insulators) is dielectric heating (誘電加熱)

  • EcoCute refrigerant is CO₂ (carbon dioxide). Use S-type (SB, SG) downlights for insulated ceilings, and explosion-proof luminaires (防爆形照明器具) for hazardous locations
WordMeaning
光束・光度・照度・輝度: Luminous flux (lm), intensity (cd), illuminance (lx), luminance (cd/m²)
エレクトロルミネセンス: Electroluminescence (LED operating principle)
誘導加熱 (ゆうどうかねつ): Induction heating (heating conductors via eddy currents)
誘電加熱 (ゆうでんかねつ): Dielectric heating (heating insulators via high-frequency fields)
防爆形照明器具 (ぼうばくがたしょうめいきぐ): Explosion-proof luminaire
バスダクト: Bus duct (enclosed busbar trunking system)

Storage Battery Systems and Power Electronics

Secondary batteries (二次電池 / 蓄電池) are used for emergency power supplies and DC control power supplies in receiving substations. A lead-acid battery (鉛蓄電池) uses lead dioxide (PbO₂) for the positive plate, spongy lead (Pb) for the negative plate, and dilute sulfuric acid (希硫酸 H₂SO₄) for the electrolyte, with a nominal voltage of about 2.0V/cell. As discharging progresses, both electrodes turn into lead sulfate (PbSO₄) and the specific gravity of the electrolyte decreases.

On the other hand, an alkaline storage battery (アルカリ蓄電池, such as a nickel-cadmium battery) uses nickel hydroxide for the positive plate, cadmium for the negative plate, and an aqueous potassium hydroxide solution (水酸化カリウム水溶液 KOH) for the electrolyte, with a nominal voltage of about 1.2V/cell. Compared to lead-acid batteries, it is more resistant to over-discharging and low temperatures and has a longer service life.

The floating charge system (浮動充電方式) of a DC power supply unit connects the charger (rectifier), storage battery, and load all in parallel. During normal operation, the charger supplies power to the load while compensating for the self-discharge of the storage battery; during a power outage, power supply to the load switches from the battery without any interruption (無瞬断).

In power electronics, organize the names of converters: a converter (コンバータ / 順変換器) changes AC to DC, an inverter (インバータ / 逆変換器) changes DC to AC, and a DC-DC converter (チョッパ — chopper) changes one DC voltage to another DC voltage. In phase control (位相制御), where a pulse is applied to the gate of a thyristor to delay the conduction start angle (control angle α), the output waveform has a portion of each half-cycle chopped off.

Furthermore, when the rotational speed of a pump or fan (送風機) is controlled by an inverter, the flow rate (air volume Q) is proportional to the 1st power of rotational speed N, pressure (head H) is proportional to the 2nd power of N, and shaft power (power consumption P) is proportional to the 3rd power of N. Therefore, even a slight reduction in rotational speed yields substantial energy savings.

Key points


  • Lead-acid battery = dilute sulfuric acid, approx. 2.0V/cell (specific gravity drops on discharge); Alkaline battery = aqueous KOH solution, approx. 1.2V/cell

  • Floating charge system connects Charger, Storage battery, and Load all in parallel, supplying the load while continuously trickle-charging the battery

  • Converter = AC → DC, Inverter = DC → AC, Chopper = DC → DC. A thyristor controls the firing angle using a gate signal

  • Inverter control of pumps and fans: Flow rate Q ∝ N, Head H ∝ N², Power consumption (shaft power) P ∝ N³ (proportional to the cube of speed)
WordMeaning
鉛蓄電池 (なまりちくでんち): Lead-acid storage battery (2.0V/cell, dilute H₂SO₄)
アルカリ蓄電池 (ちくでんち): Alkaline storage battery (1.2V/cell, aqueous KOH)
浮動充電方式 (ふどうじゅうでんほうしき): Floating charge system
コンバータ・インバータ: Converter (AC→DC) and Inverter (DC→AC)
サイリスタ位相制御 (いそうせいぎょ): Thyristor phase control

Sequence Control 1: Contact Symbols and Self-Holding Circuits

Sequence control circuits (シーケンス制御回路) that start, stop, and automatically operate electric motors are an essential topic appearing every year on the First-Class Electrician written exam. First, among JIS C 0617 contact symbols, reliably distinguish between an a-contact (a接点 / メーク接点 / 常開接点 — Normally Open), which is open when unactuated and closes when actuated, and a b-contact (b接点 / ブレーク接点 / 常閉接点 — Normally Closed), which is closed when unactuated and opens when actuated.

In vertically drawn sequence diagrams, a movable contact drawn detached to the right of the vertical line is an a-contact, whereas one touching on the left side of the vertical line is a b-contact. A pushbutton (押しボタン) has a T-shaped head at the tip of the rod, an auxiliary contact of an electromagnetic contactor (電磁接触器 MC) has a semicircular link symbol, and a thermal relay (サーマルリレー THR) has a square box-shaped trip element.

Because a pushbutton returns to its original position when you release your finger, an auxiliary self-holding a-contact (MC-a) of the electromagnetic contactor is connected in parallel (並列) with the start pushbutton BS (a-contact). As a result, pressing BS for just a moment keeps the contactor coil MC energized, forming a self-holding circuit (自己保持回路) that maintains the running state even after the button is released.

The stop pushbutton (b-contact) used to release self-holding and stop the motor, as well as the thermal relay contact THR (b-contact) that interrupts the circuit during an overload, must always be inserted in series (直列) with the self-holding circuit and coil MC. When either opens, current to coil MC is cut off, and the main contacts and self-holding contact open simultaneously for a safe stop.

In a multi-point control circuit (複数箇所操作回路) that starts and stops equipment from two or more locations, the absolute ironclad rule is: connect start a-contacts (ON buttons) in parallel with each other (OR circuit), and connect stop b-contacts (OFF buttons) in series with each other (AND circuit).

Sequence Control 1: Contact Symbols and Self-Holding Circuits

Key points


  • An a-contact (make contact) is normally open (opens to the right); a b-contact (break contact) is normally closed (closes on the left)

  • Self-holding circuit: connect the start button (a-contact) and contactor auxiliary a-contact (MC-a) in parallel, and connect the stop button (b-contact) and THR (b-contact) in series

  • When operating from multiple locations: connect all start buttons (a-contacts) in parallel, and connect all stop buttons (b-contacts) in series

  • When the thermal relay (THR) trips, its THR b-contact opens to stop the motor, and its THR a-contact closes to light the fault indicator lamp (such as OL)
WordMeaning
a接点・メーク接点 (せってん): a-contact / Make contact (Normally Open - NO)
b接点・ブレーク接点 (せってん): b-contact / Break contact (Normally Closed - NC)
自己保持回路 (じこほじかいろ): Self-holding (latching) circuit
電磁接触器 (でんじせっしょくき - MC): Electromagnetic contactor (MC)
熱動継電器 (ねつどうけいでんき - THR): Thermal relay (THR)

Sequence Control 2: Forward-Reverse Interlock and Timer Circuits

To reverse the direction of rotation of a three-phase induction motor, swap the connections of any two of the three phases (R, S, T or U, V, W) in the main circuit to reverse the direction of the rotating magnetic field. Be careful that if you shift all three wires in cyclic order, the phase sequence remains the same and the motor will not reverse.

If the forward electromagnetic contactor (MCF or MC1) and reverse electromagnetic contactor (MCR or MC2) were ever closed simultaneously, a dangerous phase-to-phase short circuit would occur in the main circuit. To prevent this, an interlock circuit (インターロック回路 / 相互鎖錠回路) is provided by placing the opposite reverse auxiliary b-contact (MCR-b) in series with the forward coil MCF, and the forward auxiliary b-contact (MCF-b) in series with the reverse coil MCR.

In a time-delay relay (限時継電器 / タイマ TLR) whose contacts operate after a set time, an on-delay a-contact (限時動作・瞬時復帰 a接点) that closes a fixed time after coil excitation and an on-delay b-contact that opens a fixed time after excitation are used. In schematic symbols, a rounded umbrella mark (semicircular arc) is drawn pointing in the direction the contact moves (the delayed direction).

In a Y-Δ starting circuit, pressing the start button simultaneously energizes the main contactor (MCM), star contactor (MCS), and timer (TLR) to start the motor in Y-connection. After the set time, the timer's delayed b-contact opens to de-energize MCS, and its delayed a-contact closes to energize the delta contactor (MCD), transitioning to normal Δ-connected operation. An interlock is always installed between MCS and MCD as well.

For indicator lamps on control panels, a red lamp (RL) is generally wired for running indication (lit by MC's a-contact), a green lamp (GL) for stopped indication (lit by MC's b-contact), and an orange or white lamp (OL, WL) for overload fault indication (lit by THR's a-contact). Exam questions frequently ask you to trace time charts (タイムチャート) and lamp states.

Key points


  • To reverse a three-phase induction motor, swap 2 of the 3 wires in the three-phase main circuit

  • Interlock circuit: to prevent a short circuit from simultaneous closing, connect the opposite contactor's b-contact in series with each coil

  • On-delay timer (TLR): operates after a set time delay following excitation, and resets instantaneously when de-energized (pay attention to the direction of the umbrella mark)

  • A Y-Δ starting circuit uses a timer to automatically switch from the star contactor (MCS) to the delta contactor (MCD), with an interlock preventing MCS and MCD from closing together
WordMeaning
正逆転運転 (せいぎゃくてんうんてん): Forward-reverse operation
インターロック回路 (かいろ): Interlock circuit
限時継電器・タイマ (げんじけいでんき): Time-delay relay / Timer (TLR)
限時動作瞬時復帰接点: On-delay (timed-close/open, instantaneous-reset) contact
タイムチャート: Time chart

Key Exam Points and Memory Tricks

Motor and transformer calculation problems can be solved completely with 3 formulas: (1) Rotational speed N = (120 × f ÷ p) × (1 − s); (2) In Y-Δ starting, both starting current and starting torque are 1 ÷ 3 of full-voltage starting; (3) Maximum transformer efficiency occurs when Iron loss Pi = Operating copper loss m² × Pc0, meaning m = √(Pi ÷ Pc0).

Memorize the thermal class order as: Y (90℃) → A (105℃) → E (120℃) → B (130℃) → F (155℃) → H (180℃) → C (over 180℃). Watch out for frequent exam traps that swap the temperatures among E (120℃) → B (130℃) → F (155℃) → H (180℃).

Lighting units are: Luminous flux = lumen (lm), Luminous intensity = candela (cd), Illuminance = lux (lx), and Luminance = cd/m². For electric heating, accurately distinguish the single kanji difference: Metals = Induction heating (誘導加熱) via eddy currents, whereas Insulators = Dielectric heating (誘電加熱) via high-frequency electric fields.

Fill-in-the-blank sequence control problems can be solved with 3 principles: (1) Connected in parallel with the start button is its own auxiliary a-contact (self-holding); (2) Connected in series with a coil that must never close simultaneously with the other side is the opposite side's auxiliary b-contact (interlock); (3) Multi-point start uses parallel a-contacts, while multi-point stop uses series b-contacts.

Key points


  • Y-Δ starting = 1 ÷ 3 starting current and 1 ÷ 3 starting torque; Maximum efficiency load factor m = √(Iron loss ÷ Full-load copper loss)

  • Thermal classes Y(90), A(105), E(120), B(130), F(155), H(180), C(over 180) and lighting units: flux lm, intensity cd, illuminance lx, luminance cd/m²

  • Lead-acid battery = dilute H₂SO₄ 2.0V; Alkaline battery = KOH 1.2V; Pump power consumption P ∝ rotational speed N³

  • 3 Sequence Principles: Self-holding = own a-contact in parallel; Interlock = opposite b-contact in series; Multi-point stop = b-contacts in series
WordMeaning
最大効率条件 (さいだいこうりつじょうけん): Maximum efficiency condition (Pi = m² × Pc0)
耐熱クラス (Y・A・E・B・F・H・C): Thermal insulation classes
自己保持とインターロック: Self-holding and Interlock

Electrical Machines, Applications & Sequence Control

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