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Power Generation, Transmission & Distribution, Substations, and High-Voltage Receiving Equipment

Class 1 Electrician 第一種電気工事士 (written exam) · 第一種電気工事士(学科試験) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Steam Thermal Power, Diesel Power Generation, and Cogeneration

In a natural circulation boiler (自然循環式ボイラ) of a thermal power plant (汽力発電), water and steam flow in the order: Feedwater pump (給水ポンプ) → Economizer (節炭器) → Steam drum (蒸気ドラム) → Generating tubes / Waterwall tubes (蒸発管 / 水冷壁管) → Superheater (過熱器) → Steam turbine (蒸気タービン). The economizer (節炭器) preheats feedwater using residual heat from combustion exhaust gas to improve thermal efficiency.

Returning steam that has performed work in the high-pressure turbine back to the boiler to be reheated in a reheater (再熱器) before sending it to the intermediate/low-pressure turbine is called a reheat cycle (再熱サイクル). Also, the condenser (復水器) cools steam exhausted from the turbine with cooling water to return it to water, maintaining a high vacuum inside to increase turbine output.

A diesel engine (ディーゼル機関), widely used in emergency standby generator sets in buildings and factories, is an internal combustion engine that injects light oil (軽油) or heavy oil (重油) into air compressed to high temperature and pressure by a piston, causing spontaneous ignition (自然着火). Therefore, it needs no spark plugs (点火プラグ) like a gasoline engine, achieving high thermal efficiency and rapid starting.

A 4-cycle (4-stroke) diesel engine performs work once every 4 strokes (2 crankshaft revolutions) in the order: Intake (吸入) → Compression (圧縮) → Combustion / Expansion (燃焼・膨張) → Exhaust (排気). To suppress rotational pulsation (speed fluctuation) and ensure smooth rotation, a heavy flywheel (はずみ車 / フライホイール) is mounted on the shaft.

A cogeneration system (コージェネレーションシステム / 熱電併給 — combined heat and power) generates electricity using a gas engine or gas turbine while simultaneously recovering exhaust heat as steam or hot water for hot water supply and air conditioning, boosting total thermal efficiency to around 70 to 80%.

Steam Thermal Power, Diesel Power Generation, and Cogeneration

Key points


  • Water/steam path in a natural circulation boiler: Feedwater pump → Economizer (preheats water with exhaust gas) → Generating tubes → Superheater → Turbine → Condenser

  • A diesel engine injects fuel into compressed air for spontaneous ignition (no spark plugs needed). A flywheel (はずみ車) is used to prevent rotational pulsation

  • Stroke order of a 4-cycle engine: Intake (吸入) → Compression (圧縮) → Combustion / Expansion (燃焼・膨張) → Exhaust (排気)

  • Cogeneration combines power generation and exhaust heat utilization, improving overall energy efficiency to 70–80%
WordMeaning
節炭器・過熱器・復水器: Economizer, Superheater, Condenser
再熱サイクル: Reheat cycle
ディーゼル発電機: Diesel generator
はずみ車 (フライホイール): Flywheel
コージェネレーション: Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power - CHP)

Hydroelectric Power, Pumped-Storage Power, and Renewable Energy

The water conduit path of a hydroelectric power plant is: Intake (取水口) → Settling basin (沈砂池) → Headrace (導水路) → Surge tank (サージタンク / 調圧水槽) → Penstock (水圧管路) → Hydraulic turbine (水車) → Draft tube (吸出管) → Tailrace (放水口). The surge tank is installed to absorb and mitigate water hammer (水撃作用 / ウォーターハンマ) occurring in the penstock during sudden load changes.

Among hydraulic turbines, an impulse turbine suited for high head and small flow is the Pelton turbine (ペルトン水車); a reaction turbine for medium head is the Francis turbine (フランシス水車); and a reaction turbine for low head and large flow is the Propeller turbine (プロペラ水車; with adjustable blades, the Kaplan turbine カプラン水車). A cross-flow turbine (クロスフロー水車) is for small hydro power, not a wind turbine.

When the effective head is H (m), flow rate is Q (m³/s), and combined efficiency of the turbine and generator is η, the hydroelectric generator output P (kW) is found by P = 9.8 × Q × H × η. Conversely, in pumped-storage hydro (揚水発電), the motor input P (kW) required to pump a flow rate Q (m³/s) up a total head H (m) is divided by efficiency: P = (9.8 × Q × H) ÷ η.

The connection order for grid-tied solar photovoltaics (太陽光発電) is: Solar cell module (太陽電池モジュール) → Junction box (接続箱, with built-in blocking diodes) → Power conditioner (パワーコンディショナ, with built-in inverter and grid-interconnection protection) → Transformer / Grid. The power conditioner converts DC to AC and prevents islanding operation (単独運転).

Wind turbines for wind power generation include horizontal-axis Propeller types (プロペラ形) and vertical-axis Darrieus (ダリウス形), Gyromill (ジャイロミル形), and Savonius (サボニウス形) types. Geothermal power generation (地熱発電) uses underground natural steam to drive a steam turbine, enabling stable operation as a baseload power source unaffected by weather.

Key points


  • A surge tank (調圧水槽) is installed upstream of the penstock to mitigate water hammer (ウォーターハンマ) during sudden valve closure

  • Hydroelectric generator output P = 9.8 × Q × H × η (kW); Pumped-storage motor input P = 9.8 × Q × H ÷ η (kW)

  • Solar PV path: Solar cell module → Junction box (接続箱) → Power conditioner (DC → AC conversion) → Grid

  • Propeller, Darrieus, and Gyromill are wind turbines; Pelton, Francis, Kaplan, and Cross-flow are hydraulic (water) turbines
WordMeaning
サージタンク (調圧水槽): Surge tank
水撃作用 (ウォーターハンマ): Water hammer
ペルトン・フランシス・カプラン水車: Pelton, Francis, and Kaplan hydraulic turbines
揚水発電 (ようすいはつでん): Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
パワーコンディショナ: Power Conditioning System (PCS / Solar inverter)

Overhead Transmission Line Phenomena and Underground Power Cables

An overhead ground wire (架空地線) strung at the very top of transmission towers is a bare conductor used to shield transmission lines from direct lightning strikes (直撃雷). Also, horn-shaped arcing horns (アークホーン / 招弧角) attached to both ends of an insulator string protect the insulators from damage caused by arc heat during a lightning flashover (閃絡).

Regarding mechanical vibrations of transmission lines, dampers (ダンパ, such as torsional dampers) are attached to prevent aeolian vibration, where gentle wind causes fine vertical oscillation of conductors. Furthermore, distance-keeping fittings that prevent sub-conductors from colliding on bundled-conductor transmission lines (多導体送電線) are called spacers (スペーサ).

In winter, when snow and ice adhering to a conductor drop off, the recoil causes the conductor to jump violently upward, resulting in contact and short-circuiting between upper and lower conductors; this phenomenon is called sleet jump (スリートジャンプ). Countermeasures include providing horizontal offset (オフセット) between upper and lower conductors and installing phase-to-phase spacers (相間スペーサ).

During light-load periods such as late night or holidays, leading charging current flows due to the line-to-ground capacitance of long-distance transmission lines or underground cables, causing the receiving-end voltage to become higher than the sending-end voltage; this is called the Ferranti effect (フェランチ効果). To suppress it, shunt reactors (分路リアクトル, which consume lagging reactive power) are switched in at substations.

In CV cables (cross-linked polyethylene insulated vinyl-sheathed cables) used for underground transmission, in addition to conductor resistance loss (抵抗損), dielectric loss (誘電体損, proportional to ε·tanδ) due to charging current in the insulation and sheath loss (シース損) due to induced current in the metallic sheath occur.

Key points


  • Overhead ground wire = prevents direct lightning strikes; Arcing horn = protects insulator strings from flashover arc heat; Damper = prevents gentle-wind vibration

  • Sleet jump = conductor jumping and short-circuiting when ice/snow drops off (countermeasures: horizontal offset, phase-to-phase spacers)

  • Ferranti effect = phenomenon where Receiving-end voltage > Sending-end voltage under light load due to ground capacitance (leading current)

  • Power cable losses = Conductor resistance loss + Insulation dielectric loss (誘電体損) + Metallic sheath loss (シース損)
WordMeaning
架空地線・アークホーン: Overhead ground wire and Arcing horn
ダンパ・スペーサ: Damper and Spacer
スリートジャンプ: Sleet jump
フェランチ効果 (こうか): Ferranti effect
誘電体損・シース損: Dielectric loss and Sheath loss

Substation Equipment, Transformer Parallel Operation, and Energy Storage

Among neutral grounding methods in power systems, the methods with the smallest single-line-to-ground fault current and least inductive interference to communication lines are peterson-coil (arc-suppression reactor) grounding (消弧リアクトル接地方式) and ungrounded systems (非接地方式, used in 6.6kV distribution lines); conversely, direct grounding (直接接地方式) in extra-high-voltage grids has the largest ground fault current but the lowest voltage rise on healthy phases.

Gas-insulated switchgear (GIS — ガス絶縁開閉装置), widely used in urban substations, encloses circuit breakers, disconnecting switches, and busbars inside grounded metal vessels filled with colorless, odorless, non-flammable sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆ — 六フッ化硫黄) gas, which has superior dielectric strength and arc-quenching capability, achieving dramatic miniaturization.

A transformer at a substation that changes its turns ratio (taps) without interrupting power (under load) in response to load fluctuations to keep secondary voltage constant is called a load ratio control transformer (負荷時タップ切換変圧器 — LRT). Note that taps on cast-resin transformers in customer receiving rooms must always be switched under de-energized (no-voltage) conditions.

The four required conditions for parallel operation of two transformers are: (1) matching polarity (極性); (2) equal primary and secondary rated voltages and transformation ratio (変圧比); (3) equal percentage impedance (%Z) and resistance-to-reactance ratio; and (4) for three-phase units, matching angular displacement (角変位) and phase sequence (相回転). Equal rated efficiency or equal capacity is not required.

Secondary batteries (二次電池, rechargeable) for electric energy storage include sodium-sulfur (NAS) batteries, redox flow batteries (レドックスフロー電池), lithium-ion batteries, and nickel-metal hydride batteries. Exam questions frequently include alkaline-manganese dry cells (アルカリマンガン乾電池 — which are non-rechargeable primary cells 一次電池) as the wrong choice.

Key points


  • 6.6kV distribution systems use the ungrounded method (非接地方式); single-line ground fault current and inductive interference are smallest in arc-suppression reactor grounding

  • Gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) uses non-flammable SF₆ (sulfur hexafluoride) gas, which has high insulating and arc-quenching performance

  • Transformer parallel operation conditions: matching polarity, transformation ratio, %Z, angular displacement, and phase sequence (matching efficiency is not required)

  • Energy storage secondary batteries = NAS, Redox flow, Lithium-ion batteries (alkaline-manganese dry cell is a primary battery and cannot be used)
WordMeaning
中性点接地方式 (ちゅうせいてんせっちほうしき): Neutral grounding method
ガス絶縁開閉装置 (GIS): Gas-Insulated Switchgear (using SF₆ gas)
負荷時タップ切換変圧器 (LRT): Load Ratio Control Transformer (on-load tap changer)
並行運転条件 (へいこううんてんじょうけん): Conditions for parallel operation
レドックスフロー電池・NAS電池: Redox flow battery and Sodium-Sulfur (NAS) battery

Main Equipment in 6.6kV High-Voltage Receiving Substations 1 (PAS, VCT, DS, LA, VCB, LBS)

A pole-mounted high-voltage AC load break switch (PAS) or underground load break switch (UGS) installed at the service demarcation point incorporates a zero-phase current transformer (ZCT) and ground fault relay (GR / DGR) (GR-equipped PAS), automatically opening during an internal ground fault to prevent utility-wide fault propagation (波及事故). Because it cannot interrupt short-circuit current directly, during a short circuit it performs SOG operation to open under no-voltage after the utility substation breaker trips.

A combined instrument transformer that steps down high voltage and current to low voltage and small current for the watt-hour meter (Wh) is the VCT (or MOF), housing two VTs (V-connected) and two CTs inside. Owned by the electric utility for billing metering, its case receives Class A grounding and its secondary side receives Class D grounding (3.5mm² or larger).

A disconnecting switch (DS — 断路器) has no arc-extinguishing device, so it cannot switch load current and can only be opened or closed under no-load (after opening the circuit breaker). However, it can switch transformer exciting current or the charging current of a short cable. A lightning arrester (LA — 避雷器) discharges lightning surges to earth, requires Class A grounding (14mm² or larger), and never has a fuse upstream.

A vacuum circuit breaker (VCB — 真空遮断器), used as the main interrupting device (CB-type) for receiving capacities over 300kVA, extinguishes arcs inside a high-vacuum interrupter to rapidly interrupt ground-fault and short-circuit currents. It must always be used in combination with current transformers (CT) and overcurrent relays (OCR).

For main interrupting devices of 300kVA or less (PF·S-type) or on the primary side of transformers, a load break switch with high-voltage current-limiting power fuses (PF-equipped LBS) is used. The LBS switches load current, while the PF melts to interrupt short-circuit current. For transformers of 50kVA or less and power capacitors, high-voltage primary cutouts (PC) are also used.

Main Equipment in 6.6kV High-Voltage Receiving Substations 1 (PAS, VCT, DS, LA, VCB, LBS)

Key points


  • GR-equipped PAS and UGS can interrupt ground-fault current and load current, but cannot interrupt short-circuit current (they open under no-voltage via SOG function)

  • A disconnecting switch (DS) cannot switch load current (always open it after opening the VCB or LBS). It can switch transformer exciting current

  • Main interrupting device: LBS + PF (PF·S-type) is allowed for 300kVA or less; VCB + CT + OCR (CB-type) is required for over 300kVA

  • Harmonic sources (高調波発生源) are semiconductor converters such as inverters, rectifiers, and UPS units; power capacitors (SC) are not a source (they suffer harmonic inflow)
WordMeaning
高圧交流負荷開閉器 (PAS・LBS): High-voltage AC load break switch (PAS / LBS)
計器用変成器 (VCT / MOF): Combined instrument transformer (Metering Outfit)
断路器 (DS)・避雷器 (LA): Disconnecting switch (DS) and Lightning arrester (LA)
真空遮断器 (VCB): Vacuum circuit breaker (VCB)
高圧カットアウト (PC): High-voltage primary cutout (PC)

6.6kV Receiving Equipment 2 and Material / Tool Identification

A current transformer (CT) steps down large currents to 5A, and a voltage transformer (VT) steps down 6,600V to 110V. A zero-phase current transformer (ZCT) passes all three phase conductors through together to detect ground-fault current; if the cable shield copper tape grounding wire passes through the ZCT, it must be looped back from bottom to top through the ZCT again to cancel induced current.

A high-voltage power capacitor (SC — 高圧進相コンデンサ) for power factor correction must have a series reactor (SR — 直列リアクトル, about 6% of capacitor capacity) connected in series. The two purposes of the SR are suppressing inrush current when switching on the capacitor and preventing overheating/burnout caused by inflow of 5th-harmonic currents (waveform improvement). A built-in discharge coil discharges residual voltage to 50V or less within 5 seconds after opening.

When installing a high-voltage receiving cubicle (キュービクル) indoors, for fire prevention it must in principle be separated from building walls by at least 0.2m (at least 0.6m on inspection sides). Also, copper plates or copper-clad steel rods are used for grounding electrodes; aluminum plates (アルミニウム板) corrode easily and must never be used.

In material identification, exams frequently test distinguishing guy-wire hardware for utility poles (支線工事: guy rod, guy band, strain ball insulator 玉がいし, thimble, galvanized steel strand) from a strain clamp (引留クランプ — used for dead-ending overhead conductors, not guy wires). Also remember the 3-pole hospital-grade outlet (医用コンセント) for operating rooms and concrete ceiling inserts (インサート).

In tool identification, distinguish: a torque wrench (トルクレンチ) for tightening bolts to specified torque, a hydraulic knockout puncher (ノックアウトパンチャ) for punching round holes in steel enclosures, a wire puller (張線器 / シメラー) for adjusting conductor sag, a hydraulic pipe bender (油圧式パイプベンダ) for bending thick steel conduits, and cable jacks (ケーブルジャッキ) for lifting and rotating cable drums.

6.6kV Receiving Equipment 2 and Material / Tool Identification

Key points


  • CT secondary rating = 5A (never open-circuit secondary while energized), VT secondary rating = 110V, ZCT = detects ground-fault (zero-phase) current

  • A series reactor (SR) is connected in series with a power capacitor (SC) to prevent harmonic inflow (waveform improvement) and suppress inrush current

  • An aluminum plate (アルミニウム板) cannot be used as a grounding electrode due to corrosion. A strain clamp (引留クランプ) is not used for pole guy-wire work

  • Clearance between a cubicle and building walls must be at least 0.2m (at least 0.6m on the inspection side)
WordMeaning
変流器 (CT)・計器用変圧器 (VT): Current transformer (5A) and Voltage transformer (110V)
零相変流器 (ZCT): Zero-phase current transformer
進相コンデンサ (SC)・直列リアクトル (SR): Power capacitor and Series reactor
引留クランプ・玉がいし: Strain clamp and Guy strain insulator
ノックアウトパンチャ・張線器: Knockout puncher and Wire puller

Key Exam Points and Memory Tricks

Power generation calculations require only two formulas: hydroelectric generator output P = 9.8 × Q × H × η (multiply by efficiency) and pumped-storage motor input P = 9.8 × Q × H ÷ η (divide by efficiency). Carefully check whether the question asks for generation (multiply) or pumping (divide).

Memorize transmission and substation terms one-to-one: Water hammer mitigation = Surge tank; Ice/snow drop conductor jump = Sleet jump; Light-load receiving voltage rise = Ferranti effect; Gentle-wind vibration prevention = Damper; GIS insulating gas = SF₆.

Classic wrong answer choices are fixed: Transformer parallel operation condition → Equal rated efficiency; Energy-storage secondary battery → Alkaline-manganese dry cell (primary battery); Harmonic source → Power capacitor (進相コンデンサ); Grounding electrode → Aluminum plate; Guy-wire material → Strain clamp (引留クランプ).

For high-voltage receiving equipment, frequent exam points are: PAS and LBS cannot interrupt short-circuit current (VCB and PF can); DS cannot switch load current; substations over 300kVA require a CB-type main breaker (VCB + CT + OCR); and SR suppresses inrush current and 5th harmonics.

Key points


  • Hydro generation output = 9.8QHη (multiply); Pumped-storage input = 9.8QH ÷ η (divide)

  • Sleet jump (ice drop jump), Ferranti effect (light-load voltage rise), Surge tank (water hammer mitigation), GIS (SF₆ gas)

  • Classic wrong choices: Equal efficiency (parallel operation), Alkaline-manganese cell (secondary battery), Power capacitor (harmonic source), Aluminum plate (ground electrode)

  • PAS and LBS cannot interrupt short circuits; DS cannot switch load current; 300kVA divides PF·S-type (≤ 300kVA) and CB-type (> 300kVA)
WordMeaning
SOG動作 (PAS・UGS): Storage Overcurrent Ground-fault operation
PF・S形とCB形 (300kVA基準): Fuse-Switch type vs Circuit-Breaker type main protection
高調波と直列リアクトル: Harmonics and Series reactor (SR)

Generation, Transmission, Substations & HV Receiving Equipment

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Official references

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