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Materials (Steel Materials, JIS Standards & Mechanical Properties of Rebar, Concrete Materials)

Rebar Worker Certificate 鉄筋技能士 (Grade 1/2 theory) · 技能検定「鉄筋施工」1級・2級 学科 · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Classification of Ferrous Metals, Carbon Content, and Rebar Manufacturing

Ferrous metals are classified by carbon (C) content into pure iron (C up to about 0.02%), steel (C about 0.02% to 2.0%), and pig/cast iron (C about 2.0% to 6.7%). All reinforcing bars and structural shapes used in buildings are tough 'steel (kō).'

As carbon content in steel increases, hardness and tensile strength increase, whereas elongation (ductility), impact toughness, and weldability (including gas pressure weldability) decrease. Phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S) are harmful impurities that cause embrittlement.

Reinforcing steel bars are produced either by the 'electric arc furnace (EAF) process,' which melts and refines steel scrap, or the 'blast furnace–basic oxygen furnace process' from iron ore. Most ordinary deformed bars are manufactured in electric furnaces from scrap steel.

Continuously cast steel billets are reheated to about 1000–1200°C and passed through grooved rolling mills to form the bar diameter, longitudinal ribs, and transverse lugs in a process called 'hot rolling (nekkan atsuen).'

Key points


  • Ferrous alloys with ~0.02–2.0% carbon are 'steel' and over ~2.0% are 'cast/pig iron'; rebars are made of steel

  • Higher carbon content increases hardness and tensile strength but reduces elongation, toughness, and weldability

  • Most deformed rebars are refined from steel scrap in electric arc furnaces and formed by hot rolling
WordMeaning
pure iron, steel, and pig/cast iron (by carbon content)
tensile strength, elongation, and weldability
electric arc furnace process (steel scrap feedstock)
hot rolling and steel billet

Tensile Testing of Rebar, Stress-Strain Curve, and Mechanical Properties

In a tensile test to determine the mechanical properties of rebar, a specimen is pulled to fracture while recording the relationship between stress (force per unit cross-sectional area, N/mm²) and strain (elongation divided by original gauge length).

At low stress, stress is directly proportional to strain (Hooke's law), and the maximum stress from which the bar returns to its original length upon unloading is the 'elastic limit.' The slope of this linear region, Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity), is constant at about '205 kN/mm² (205,000 N/mm²)' regardless of steel grade.

Beyond the elastic limit, yielding occurs where strain increases rapidly without an increase in stress: the initial peak is the 'upper yield point,' followed by the 'lower yield point' plateau, after which stress rises to the maximum value called 'tensile strength' before necking and fracture.

For high-strength steels that lack a distinct yield plateau, the stress that leaves a permanent plastic strain of '0.2%' is defined as the '0.2% proof stress (offset yield strength).' The ratio of yield point to tensile strength is the 'yield ratio'; a lower yield ratio provides a larger safety margin after yielding.

Tensile Testing of Rebar, Stress-Strain Curve, and Mechanical Properties

Key points


  • The stress-strain curve progresses through: elastic limit → upper/lower yield point → tensile strength (maximum stress) → fracture

  • Young's modulus of reinforcing steel is constant at about 205 kN/mm² (205,000 N/mm²) regardless of steel grade

  • When no distinct yield plateau exists, the stress producing 0.2% permanent elongation is used as the 0.2% proof stress
WordMeaning
elastic limit and Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity)
upper yield point, lower yield point, and 0.2% proof stress
tensile strength (maximum stress) and elongation at fracture
yield ratio (yield strength ÷ tensile strength)

JIS G 3112 Standard for Reinforcing Steel Bars and Grade Identification

Japanese Industrial Standard JIS G 3112 specifies smooth 'round bars (SR235, SR295)' and 'deformed bars (SD295A, SD295B, SD345, SD390, SD490)' that feature longitudinal ribs and transverse lugs to enhance concrete bond.

The number in the grade designation (235, 295, 345, 390, 490) indicates the 'specified minimum yield point or 0.2% proof stress (N/mm²),' not the tensile strength. For instance, SD345 has a yield point of 345–440 N/mm² and a tensile strength of at least 490 N/mm².

To prevent mixing steel grades on site, JIS G 3112 defines 'rolled identification marks (dots)' on the bar surface and 'end color coding' painted on bar ends. SD295A has no dot and no end color; SD295B has no round dot (or a vertical bar) and a white end color.

'SD345' is marked with 1 dot (・) and painted yellow on the end; 'SD390' has 2 dots (・・) and is painted green; 'SD490' has 3 dots (・・・) and is painted blue. This identification table is tested almost every year.

JIS G 3112 Standard for Reinforcing Steel Bars and Grade Identification

Key points


  • In JIS G 3112, 'SR' denotes round bars, 'SD' denotes deformed bars, and the number is the minimum yield strength in N/mm²

  • Rolled identification dots: SD295A/B = none, SD345 = 1 dot (・), SD390 = 2 dots (・・), SD490 = 3 dots (・・・)

  • End paint colors: SD295B = white, SD345 = yellow, SD390 = green, SD490 = blue
WordMeaning
round bars (SR235, SR295) and deformed bars (SD)
minimum yield point or 0.2% proof stress
rolled identification marks (1, 2, or 3 dots)
bar end identification colors (white, yellow, green, blue)

Nominal Diameter, Unit Mass of Deformed Bars, and Mill Test Certificates

Because deformed bars have longitudinal ribs and transverse lugs, their cross-section is not a true circle. The diameter of an equivalent round bar having the same cross-sectional area—calculated from the mass per meter and steel density (7.85 g/cm³)—is called the 'nominal diameter (d),' and its area is the 'nominal cross-sectional area.'

Nominal diameters for standard bar designations are: D10 = 9.53 mm, D13 = 12.7 mm, D16 = 15.9 mm, D19 = 19.1 mm, D22 = 22.2 mm, D25 = 25.4 mm, D29 = 28.6 mm, and D32 = 31.8 mm. Anchorage and hook formulas generally use the nominal designation number in millimeters.

Standard 'unit masses per meter (kg/m)' under JIS G 3112 essential for quantity takeoffs are: D10 = 0.560 kg/m, D13 = 0.995 kg/m, D16 = 1.56 kg/m, D19 = 2.25 kg/m, D22 = 3.04 kg/m, D25 = 3.98 kg/m, and D29 = 5.04 kg/m.

When rebar is delivered to the site, the manufacturer's 'mill test certificate (mill sheet)' is checked to verify that the steel grade, dimensions, chemical composition (C, Si, Mn, P, S), and mechanical properties (yield point, tensile strength, elongation, bendability) match the bundle tags and rolled marks.

Key points


  • Nominal diameters of deformed bars: D10 = 9.53 mm, D13 = 12.7 mm, D16 = 15.9 mm, D19 = 19.1 mm, D25 = 25.4 mm

  • Key unit masses (kg/m): D10 = 0.560, D13 = 0.995, D16 = 1.56, D19 = 2.25, D22 = 3.04, D25 = 3.98, D29 = 5.04

  • Verify chemical composition and mechanical properties on the mill test certificate (mill sheet) upon delivery
WordMeaning
nominal diameter and nominal cross-sectional area
unit mass (D10 = 0.560, D13 = 0.995, D16 = 1.56 kg/m)
unit mass (D19 = 2.25, D22 = 3.04, D25 = 3.98 kg/m)
mill test certificate (mill sheet)

Welded Wire Mesh, Prestressed Concrete (PC) Steel, High-Strength Shear Bars, and Tie Wire

Welded wire mesh (JIS G 3551) is fabricated by arranging cold-drawn steel wires at right angles and joining their intersections by electric resistance spot welding. It is widely used for crack control in slabs-on-grade and composite deck slabs.

Prestressed concrete (PC) applies pre-compression to concrete using tensioned high-strength 'prestressing steel (PC wires, PC strands, PC bars)' to prevent flexural cracking across long spans. Prestressing steel has a tensile strength roughly 3 to 5 times that of ordinary rebar.

Because prestressing steel is under high tension and heat-treated, heating or welding it on site causes severe embrittlement and sudden rupture; therefore welding or torch-heating PC steel is strictly prohibited.

High-strength shear reinforcement with yield strengths of 685 N/mm² or 785 N/mm² is also used for column hoops and beam stirrups. Rebar tying uses annealed iron tie wire (namashi tessen) with a standard diameter of '0.8 mm (#21)' in 2-ply or 3-ply strands.

Key points


  • Welded wire mesh (JIS G 3551) is spot-welded by electric resistance and used for slab crack control

  • Prestressing (PC) steel has several times the tensile strength of ordinary rebar; welding or heating PC steel is strictly forbidden

  • Annealed iron tie wire (namashi tessen) for binding rebar has a standard wire diameter of 0.8 mm (#21)
WordMeaning
welded wire mesh (JIS G 3551, electric resistance welding)
prestressed concrete (PC) and prestressing steel
high-strength shear reinforcement
annealed iron tie wire (0.8 mm diameter)

Constituent Materials of Concrete (Cement, Aggregates, Water, and Admixtures)

Concrete is produced by mixing cement, water, fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed stone), and admixtures. The chemical reaction between cement and water that causes hardening is called 'hydration,' which generates 'heat of hydration.'

Aggregates are separated by a 5 mm sieve into fine aggregate and coarse aggregate; the standard maximum size of coarse aggregate for ordinary reinforced concrete is '20 mm or 25 mm.' Air-dry unit mass is about 1.7–2.0 t/m³ for lightweight concrete, compared to about 2.3 t/m³ for normal concrete (2.4 t/m³ for RC).

Admixtures are divided into two groups: 'Chemical admixtures (konwazai - 剤),' used in small dosages and excluded from mix volume, include AE (air-entraining) agents, AE water-reducing agents, and high-range AE water-reducing agents that entrain microscopic air bubbles to improve workability and freeze-thaw resistance.

Conversely, 'mineral admixtures (konwazai - 材),' used in larger quantities and included in the concrete mix volume, include fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, silica fume, and expansive additives.

Key points


  • Cement hardens by hydration with water; the standard maximum size of coarse aggregate in RC is 20 mm or 25 mm

  • Unit mass is about 2.3 t/m³ for normal concrete (2.4 t/m³ for RC) and about 1.7–2.0 t/m³ for lightweight concrete

  • AE agents and AE water-reducing agents are chemical admixtures (混和剤); fly ash and blast-furnace slag are mineral admixtures (混和材)
WordMeaning
hydration reaction and heat of hydration
fine aggregate and coarse aggregate (20 mm or 25 mm max size)
chemical admixtures (AE agent, AE water-reducing agent)
mineral admixtures (fly ash, blast-furnace slag powder)

Properties of Fresh Concrete, Slump Test, and Placing Time Limits

Freshly mixed concrete before setting is called 'fresh concrete,' and its ease of placing and consolidating into formwork and around rebar without segregation is termed 'workability.'

In a 'slump test' measuring consistency, concrete is rodded in three layers into a 30 cm (300 mm) tall slump cone, the cone is lifted vertically, and the 'vertical subsidence (cm) at the center of the top surface' is measured as the slump value.

After placement, the upward migration of mix water as solid particles settle is called 'bleeding,' and the weak, porous film of fine particles left on the top surface is called 'laitance.' Laitance must be removed before placing the next lift at a construction joint.

For ready-mixed concrete, the maximum allowable time from the start of mixing to completion of placing is 'within 120 minutes when ambient temperature is below 25°C' and 'within 90 minutes when ambient temperature is 25°C or higher.' Chloride ion content is limited to '0.30 kg/m³ or less' to prevent rebar corrosion.

Key points


  • The slump test measures vertical drop (cm) at the center of the top surface from a 30 cm cone; ease of placement is workability

  • The weak surface layer formed by bleeding is called 'laitance' and must be removed before pouring a construction joint

  • Time from mixing to completion of placing: ≤ 120 min below 25°C, ≤ 90 min at 25°C or above; chloride ion content ≤ 0.30 kg/m³
WordMeaning
workability and slump test (30 cm cone)
bleeding and laitance
placing time limit (< 25°C: 120 min; ≥ 25°C: 90 min)
chloride ion limit (≤ 0.30 kg/m³)

Hardened Concrete Strength, Water-Cement Ratio, Initial Curing, and Carbonation

The 28-day compressive strength used as the basis for structural design is the 'specified design strength (Fc, in N/mm²),' while the strength ordered from the ready-mix plant after adding temperature and statistical margins is the 'nominal ordered strength (yobi kyōdo).'

The mass ratio of water to cement is the 'water-cement ratio (W/C).' A lower water-cement ratio produces denser hardened concrete with higher compressive strength, watertightness, and durability. In JASS 5, the maximum water-cement ratio is generally '65% or less.'

During initial curing after placement, concrete must be kept moist for at least '5 days' and maintained at a temperature of '2°C or higher' to ensure proper hydration and prevent drying shrinkage cracking and early freezing.

The loss of alkalinity from the concrete surface inward due to atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is called 'carbonation (neutralization, chūseika).' Once carbonation reaches the rebar, the passive film breaks down and the bar rusts and expands, spalling the cover concrete.

Key points


  • The 28-day compressive strength for structural design is 'Fc'; a lower water-cement ratio yields higher strength and durability

  • Initial curing requires keeping the concrete moist for at least 5 days and maintaining concrete temperature at 2°C or higher

  • Carbonation (chūseika) from CO2 destroys alkalinity and causes rebar corrosion, making adequate concrete cover essential
WordMeaning
specified design strength (Fc) and nominal ordered strength
water-cement ratio (W/C ≤ 65%)
initial curing (moist curing ≥ 5 days, temperature ≥ 2°C)
concrete carbonation (neutralization) and rebar corrosion

Materials (Steel & Concrete)

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