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Engine Structure and Performance

Automobile Maintenance (SSW 2) · 自動車整備分野(2号) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Engine Performance Metrics (Mean Effective Pressure, Shaft Output, Thermal Efficiency, Losses)

When comparing engine performance, 'Mean Effective Pressure' is obtained by dividing the work of one cycle by the stroke volume (displacement), and is used to compare engines of different displacements or operating cycles.

The rate of work done on the pistons by combustion gases inside the cylinders is called 'Indicated Power', while the actual power delivered from the crankshaft to the outside is called 'Brake Power (Net Power)' or 'Shaft Output'.

The difference between indicated power and shaft output is 'Mechanical Loss'. Mechanical loss consists of 'friction loss' from pistons, piston rings, and bearings, 'auxiliary drive loss' from the water pump, oil pump, and alternator, and intake/exhaust 'pumping loss'.

In contrast, 'Heat Loss' (combustion heat that escapes without turning into work) includes 'cooling loss' transferred to coolant and cylinder walls and 'exhaust loss' discharged with hot exhaust gases; be careful not to confuse this with mechanical loss.

Furthermore, 'Theoretical Thermal Efficiency' is the ratio of heat convertible into work in a theoretical cycle to the total heat supplied; raising the compression ratio increases the theoretical thermal efficiency.

Key points


  • Mean Effective Pressure = Work per cycle ÷ Stroke volume (used to compare engines of different displacements or operating types).

  • Actual power taken from the crankshaft is 'Net Power (Shaft Output)', and Mechanical Efficiency = Shaft Output ÷ Indicated Power.

  • Piston/bearing friction loss and water pump/alternator drive loss constitute 'Mechanical Loss', not 'Heat Loss'.

  • Example: An engine with 1,800J of work per cycle and 0.0015m³ (1,500cm³) displacement → Mean effective pressure = 1,800 ÷ 0.0015 = 1,200,000Pa = 1.2MPa

  • Example: An engine with 100kW indicated power and 15kW mechanical loss → Shaft output (net power) = 100 − 15 = 85kW, mechanical efficiency = 85 ÷ 100 × 100 = 85%
WordMeaning
mean effective pressure
net power (shaft output / brake power)
mechanical loss and heat loss
theoretical thermal efficiency

Combustion Chamber Shapes and Action of the Squish Area

Gasoline engine combustion chambers widely use 'pentroof' or 'hemispherical' designs with inclined intake and exhaust valves to minimize the surface-to-volume ratio (S/V ratio).

The narrow clearance formed between the underside of the cylinder head and the outer edge of the piston crown is called the 'Squish Area'; near top dead center at the end of the compression stroke, the air-fuel mixture is strongly squeezed toward the chamber center.

The resulting turbulence (squish vortex) increases the flame propagation speed from late compression into the combustion stroke, shortening combustion duration and preventing abnormal combustion (knocking).

The 'smaller' the squish area thickness (clearance), the higher (faster) the velocity of the squish vortex. Furthermore, an 'inclined squish area' allows smoother intake airflow from the intake port thanks to its slanted shape, generating a strong vortex.

Key points


  • The 'smaller' the squish area thickness (clearance), the faster the vortex flow velocity.

  • The vortex increases flame propagation speed and 'shortens' combustion time to prevent knocking (acting during late compression and combustion, not intake).

  • An inclined squish area allows smoother intake flow from the intake passage and generates a strong vortex.
WordMeaning
squish area
inclined squish area
flame propagation speed
pentroof combustion chamber

Piston and Piston Ring Structure, Materials, and Scuffing Phenomenon

Accounting for thermal expansion, aluminum-alloy pistons are machined into an oval shape at room temperature (slightly smaller diameter along the piston pin axis than the thrust axis) and tapered narrower toward the crown.

Among piston rings, the 'compression ring' serves two roles: maintaining an airtight seal between the cylinder wall and piston, and conducting most of the combustion heat absorbed by the piston out to the cylinder wall.

A 'taper-face' compression ring with an angled outer face offers superior break-in and oil-scraping performance and is generally used as the 'second ring'. Also, three-piece 'oil rings' are generally made of 'carbon steel' rather than special cast iron.

When the oil film on the cylinder wall breaks down and the piston ring contacts the cylinder wall directly, localized high heat and seizure create scratch marks on the ring and cylinder surfaces—a phenomenon called 'scuffing'.

At high engine speeds, vertical vibration of the piston ring inside its groove that breaks the gas seal is called 'ring flutter', causing increased oil consumption and reduced power output.

Piston and Piston Ring Structure, Materials, and Scuffing Phenomenon

Key points


  • Compression rings perform two functions: 'maintaining gas sealing' and 'transferring piston heat to the cylinder wall'.

  • Taper-face rings are generally used for the second ring, and oil rings are generally made of 'carbon steel' ('special cast iron' is incorrect).

  • Scuffing occurs when the oil film on the cylinder wall breaks down, causing direct metal contact and scratch marks on the ring and cylinder wall.
WordMeaning
compression ring and oil ring
taper-face type ring
scuffing phenomenon
ring flutter phenomenon

Connecting Rod Bearings (Crush Height, Spread, Bearing Materials) and Torsional Damper

Half-shell 'connecting rod bearings' fitted into the connecting rod big end are given a slight protrusion beyond a semicircle called 'crush height', ensuring the bearing back presses tightly against the housing bore for good heat transfer and anti-rotation.

If crush height is 'too large', assembling the cap causes the bearing shell to buckle and bear localized loads, leading to early fatigue and failure; conversely, if 'too small', poor contact reduces heat dissipation and allows the bearing to spin.

Bearing 'spread' means making the free outer diameter slightly wider than the housing bore before installation, preventing the bearing ends from curving inward as the cap is compressed during assembly.

'Tri-metal' bearings sinter a copper-lead alloy (20%–30% lead, Kelmet) onto a steel backing and electroplate a lead-tin (or lead-indium) overlay. In aluminum-alloy bearings, higher tin (Sn) content increases thermal expansion, requiring a larger oil clearance than low-tin types.

The 'torsional damper' mounted at the front end of the crankshaft uses an elastic rubber element to absorb 'torsional vibration' (twisting vibration) of the crankshaft, preventing resonance breakage and noise.

Key points


  • Excessively 'large' crush height causes buckling and localized loading; 'too small' causes poor contact, poor cooling, and bearing rotation.

  • Bearing 'spread' prevents inward curling during assembly; high-tin aluminum alloy bearings require a larger oil clearance.

  • The crankshaft torsional damper absorbs 'torsional (twisting) vibration' of the crankshaft (not axial vibration).
WordMeaning
crush height and bearing spread
tri-metal bearing (Kelmet alloy)
aluminum-alloy bearing
torsional damper (twisting vibration absorber)

Valve Timing, Valve Overlap, Firing Order, and Crankshaft Angle Calculations

In a 4-stroke engine, to utilize intake and exhaust gas inertia for higher charging efficiency, the intake valve opens before exhaust TDC and closes after intake BDC, while the exhaust valve opens before expansion BDC and closes after exhaust TDC.

Consequently, near top dead center at the end of the exhaust stroke, there is a period when both the intake and exhaust valves are open simultaneously, known as 'valve overlap'.

In a 4-stroke inline 4-cylinder engine with firing order '1―3―4―2', all 4 cylinders fire once every 720° (two crankshaft revolutions), so the next cylinder in the sequence '1 → 3 → 4 → 2' reaches compression TDC every 180° of crank rotation.

Furthermore, 'Cylinders 1 & 4' and 'Cylinders 2 & 3' move as companion pairs at the same piston position (360° out of phase): whenever one cylinder is at 'compression TDC', its companion cylinder is always at 'overlap TDC'.

Starting with a given cylinder at compression TDC (0°), rotating the crankshaft 360° brings that same cylinder to 'overlap TDC', and rotating 540° (180° + 360°) brings the next cylinder in the firing order to 'overlap TDC'.

Valve Timing, Valve Overlap, Firing Order, and Crankshaft Angle Calculations

Key points


  • With firing order '1―3―4―2', the next cylinder reaches compression TDC every 180°, and companion cylinders (1–4, 2–3) are opposite between compression TDC and overlap TDC.

  • Rotating 360° swaps compression TDC and overlap TDC for the same cylinder; rotating 540° puts the cylinder 180° behind into overlap TDC.

  • Example: With firing order 1―3―4―2, rotating 540° from Cylinder 4 at compression TDC → Cylinder 2 reaches compression TDC at 180° and moves to overlap TDC after another 360° (total 540°; Cylinder 3 is at compression TDC)

  • Example: With firing order 1―3―4―2, rotating 180° from Cylinder 1 at compression TDC → Next Cylinder 3 reaches compression TDC, and its companion 'Cylinder 2' is at overlap TDC
WordMeaning
valve timing
valve overlap
compression TDC and overlap TDC
firing order (1―3―4―2)

Hydraulic Variable Valve Timing (VVT) and Superchargers (Turbo & Roots Supercharger)

A hydraulic Variable Valve Timing (VVT) mechanism on the intake camshaft is controlled by applying hydraulic oil pressure to a 'valve timing controller' mounted at the camshaft timing sprocket (pulley) at the front of the camshaft.

While keeping the valve operating angle (lift duration) 'constant', this mechanism alters the phase of the camshaft relative to the crankshaft to advance (open/close earlier) or retard (open/close later) the intake valve timing.

At medium speed and load, timing is 'advanced' to open the intake valve earlier, increasing overlap to boost internal EGR and volumetric efficiency. At idle, overlap is eliminated for stability, and at high speed, timing is 'retarded' to delay intake valve closing and use intake inertia.

Among forced-induction devices, a 'turbocharger' uses exhaust energy to spin a turbine; the compressor wheel and turbine wheel are joined on one shaft and rotate at the 'same speed'. It is compact and light, but prone to response delay (turbo lag) at low speeds.

In a mechanically driven 'two-lobe Roots supercharger', two figure-eight rotors mesh and perform a total of '4 intake/discharge cycles' per rotor revolution (2 per rotor). When boost pressure reaches the specified value, an air bypass valve opens to release excess pressure back to the intake side.

Hydraulic Variable Valve Timing (VVT) and Superchargers (Turbo & Roots Supercharger)

Key points


  • Hydraulic VVT locates the controller at the front of the camshaft and changes cam phase while keeping operating angle constant (advancing opens the intake valve earlier and increases overlap).

  • A turbocharger's compressor wheel and turbine wheel rotate at the same speed, using a wastegate valve to control boost pressure.

  • A two-lobe Roots supercharger performs '4' intake/discharge cycles per rotor revolution and controls boost via an air bypass valve.
WordMeaning
variable valve timing mechanism (VVT)
valve timing controller
turbocharger and wastegate valve
two-lobe Roots supercharger and air bypass valve

Gasoline Exhaust Characteristics, Three-Way Catalyst, and Diesel (Common Rail, DPF, Urea SCR)

In normal gasoline combustion, nitrogen (N₂) and oxygen (O₂) in air react with fuel hydrocarbons (HC) so most exhaust gas becomes harmless carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O), along with small amounts of harmful CO, HC, and NOx (nitrogen oxides).

NOx is generated in larger quantities as combustion gas temperature becomes 'higher' with excess oxygen present (peaking slightly leaner than the 14.7:1 stoichiometric ratio, around 15.5:1). Conversely, in mixtures 'richer' than stoichiometric, lower combustion temperatures and lack of oxygen reduce NOx while increasing CO and HC.

A 'three-way catalyst' simultaneously oxidizes CO and HC and reduces NOx with high efficiency within a narrow window around the 'stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (approx. 14.7:1)'. An 'EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) system' recirculates inert exhaust gas into the intake to lower peak combustion temperature and reduce NOx.

In a diesel 'common-rail fuel injection system', high-pressure fuel from a supply pump is stored in a common rail, and the ECU triggers a small 'pilot injection' ahead of main injection to shorten ignition delay, reducing combustion noise and NOx.

Diesel exhaust aftertreatment uses a 'DPF' to trap and burn off particulate matter (PM), and a 'urea SCR system' that sprays aqueous urea into the exhaust pipe so hydrolyzed ammonia (NH₃) reduces NOx into harmless nitrogen (N₂) and water (H₂O).

Key points


  • NOx increases as combustion gas temperature gets 'higher'; in mixtures richer than stoichiometric, NOx decreases while CO and HC increase.

  • A three-way catalyst purifies CO, HC, and NOx simultaneously near the 'stoichiometric ratio (14.7:1)'; EGR lowers combustion temperature to suppress NOx.

  • Common-rail pilot injection shortens ignition delay, DPF traps and burns PM, and urea SCR reduces NOx using ammonia.
WordMeaning
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio and three-way catalyst
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
common-rail system and pilot injection
DPF and urea SCR system

Common Exam Points & Memory Tips

Frequent exam traps: 'Piston friction + water pump/alternator drive = Mechanical loss (not heat loss)', 'Excessively large connecting-rod bearing crush height causes buckling and local load (not too small)', and 'Oil rings are made of carbon steel (special cast iron is false)'.

For '1―3―4―2' firing-order crank angle problems, remember: 'Advance to the next cylinder in 1→3→4→2 every 180°, and flip compression TDC to overlap TDC every 360°'. Thus, rotating 540° (= 180° + 360°) from Cylinder 4 at compression TDC puts the next cylinder, 'Cylinder 2', at overlap TDC!

Also lock in: 'NOx increases at HIGHER combustion temperatures (lower is false)', 'A two-lobe Roots supercharger performs 4 intake/discharge cycles per rotor turn (1 cycle is false)', and 'VVT keeps operating angle constant while varying cam phase'.

Key points


  • Mean effective pressure = Work per cycle ÷ Stroke volume / Friction & auxiliary drive losses are 'Mechanical Loss'.

  • Excessive crush height = buckling & local load / Spread = prevents inward curling / Oil ring material = Carbon steel.

  • Squish area: Smaller clearance yields faster vortex velocity, shortening combustion time to prevent knocking.

  • 540° rotation in 1―3―4―2: Rotating 540° from Cylinder 4 at compression TDC puts Cylinder 2 at overlap TDC.

  • NOx rises at high combustion temp / 2-lobe Roots = 4 cycles per revolution / Torsional damper absorbs 'torsional vibration'.
WordMeaning
mechanical loss and heat loss
connecting rod bearing crush height
overlap top dead center
two-lobe Roots supercharger

Engine Structure & Performance

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