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Electrical Equipment, Electronic Control Systems, and External Diagnostic Testers

Automobile Maintenance (SSW 2) · 自動車整備分野(2号) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Lead-Acid Battery Discharge Characteristics, Specific Gravity, EMF, and Capacity Calculation

An automotive 'lead-acid battery' has a nominal voltage of approximately 2.0V per cell (electromotive force of about 2.1V), with 6 cells connected in series to form a 12V battery.

The '5-hour rate capacity' represents the quantity of electricity (Ah = current A × time h) discharged continuously at a constant current for 5 hours at an ambient temperature of 25℃ until the 'final discharge voltage reaches 1.75V per cell (10.5V across all 6 cells)'.

Battery capacity becomes 'larger' as electrolyte temperature increases (within the range below about 50℃) because chemical reactions become more active, and conversely becomes 'smaller' as discharge current increases.

The standard specific gravity of the electrolyte (dilute sulfuric acid) when fully charged is '1.280 at a liquid temperature of 20℃'; since specific gravity decreases by 0.0007 for every 1℃ rise in liquid temperature, it is corrected using the 20℃ conversion formula 'S20 = St + 0.0007 × (t − 20)'.

Additionally, the electromotive force (EMF) of a battery has the characteristic of 'rising slightly' as electrolyte specific gravity increases and as electrolyte temperature increases (statements saying it drops are incorrect).

Key points


  • The final discharge voltage for a 5-hour rate discharge is '1.75V per cell (10.5V for an entire 12V battery)'.

  • Higher electrolyte temperature (below 50℃) yields larger capacity, and higher specific gravity and temperature yield higher electromotive force.

  • Standard fully charged specific gravity is '1.280 at 20℃', changing by 0.0007 per 1℃ of temperature.

  • Example: Rated discharge current bringing a battery with a 5-hour rate capacity of 45Ah to final discharge voltage (1.75V/cell) in 5 hours → 45 ÷ 5 = 9A

  • Example: When measured specific gravity at a liquid temperature of 30℃ is 1.273, the 20℃ converted specific gravity S20 → 1.273 + 0.0007 × (30 − 20) = 1.280
WordMeaning
5-hour rate capacity (Ah)
final discharge voltage (1.75V/cell)
electrolyte specific gravity (1.280 at 20℃)
electromotive force (EMF) and discharge current

Alternator (AC Generator): Star (Y) vs. Delta (Δ) Connection, Rectification, and Voltage Regulation

An alternator consists of a 'rotor coil (field coil)' that creates a magnetic field, a 'stator coil (armature coil)' that generates three-phase AC, 'silicon diodes (rectifier)' that perform full-wave rectification from AC to DC, and an 'IC regulator' that keeps generated voltage constant.

Stator coil wiring methods include 'star connection (Y connection)' and 'delta connection (Δ connection)'. Compared to Δ connection, Y connection has simpler coil connections and features a 'neutral point' where the three coils meet, allowing neutral-point voltage to be utilized.

Furthermore, in a Y connection, line voltage equals √3 times (about 1.73 times) the phase voltage, giving it 'superior low-speed output characteristics (early power generation cut-in at low RPM)', though its maximum output current is 'smaller' than in a Δ connection.

Conversely, a Δ connection has no neutral point, but its line current equals √3 times the phase current, giving it the characteristic of a 'large maximum output current' for vehicles requiring heavy electrical loads.

The IC regulator rapidly switches the field current flowing through the rotor coil ON and OFF (duty control) using a power transistor, regulating charging voltage within a constant range of approximately 14.0V to 14.5V even when engine speed or electrical load changes.

Alternator (AC Generator): Star (Y) vs. Delta (Δ) Connection, Rectification, and Voltage Regulation

Key points


  • Compared to Δ connection, Y (star) connection features 'simpler coil connections', 'a neutral point', and 'superior low-speed output characteristics'.

  • Maximum output current is 'smaller' in a Y connection than in a Δ connection (statements claiming Y connection has a larger maximum output current are false).

  • The IC regulator controls the current in the 'rotor coil (field coil)' ON and OFF to keep generated voltage constant.
WordMeaning
star connection (Y connection) and neutral point
delta connection (Δ connection)
stator coil and rotor coil
IC regulator and rectifier

Series-Wound Starter Output Characteristics and Drive Mechanism

In a 'series-wound DC motor' used for a starter, the field coil that creates the magnetic field and the rotating armature coil are connected in 'series', so the exact same armature current flows through both coils.

As a key characteristic of a series-wound starter, at the instant the switch is turned on when 'pinion rotational speed is 0 (locked state)', 'counter-electromotive force (counter-EMF) is 0', so armature current is at its 'maximum' and generated drive torque is also at its 'maximum'.

Thereafter, as pinion rotational speed increases, counter-EMF grows larger, causing armature current to decrease and torque to drop sharply along with it. Note that starter output power (kW) is 0 when rotational speed is 0, and reaches its peak at an intermediate current level.

The magnetic switch is equipped with a 'pull-in coil' that pushes the pinion into mesh with the ring gear and a 'hold-in coil' that holds its position; once the main contact closes, current stops flowing through the pull-in coil.

Additionally, the 'overrunning clutch' freewheels (acts as a one-way clutch) when the ring gear spins faster than the pinion after engine start, preventing armature damage from overspeeding.

Key points


  • In a series-wound starter, when pinion speed is '0', counter-EMF is 0, so armature current is 'maximum' and torque is also 'maximum'.

  • As pinion rotational speed increases, counter-EMF increases, while armature current and torque decrease.

  • The overrunning clutch prevents the armature from being back-driven and overspun by the ring gear after the engine starts.
WordMeaning
series-wound starter
counter-electromotive force and armature current
magnetic switch
overrunning clutch

Ignition Timing Control (ESA), Dwell Angle Control, and Spark Plug Heat Range

In an Electronic Spark Advance (ESA) system, the engine ECU calculates basic ignition timing from 'intake air quantity (or intake manifold pressure)' and 'engine speed', then applies corrections based on coolant temperature and knock sensor signals (retarding timing when knocking occurs).

In 'idle stabilization control', when idle speed drops below the target speed due to air conditioner load or similar factors, the ECU 'advances' ignition timing to boost combustion torque and prevent speed fluctuations.

In 'dwell angle (primary current conduction) control', as engine speed rises, the time available for primary current to flow through the ignition coil shortens; therefore, the ECU 'advances the ON timing (starts conduction earlier)' of the power transistor to secure sufficient primary current and secondary voltage.

Regarding spark plug 'heat range (degree of heat dissipation)', a 'low heat range (hot type)' plug has a 'longer insulator foot (tip) and a larger gas pocket volume' compared to a high heat range (cold type) plug, making heat harder to escape so it easily reaches self-cleaning temperature (approx. 450–500℃) even during low-speed driving.

Conversely, a 'high heat range (cold type)' plug has a shorter insulator foot and smaller gas pocket so heat dissipates quickly, preventing pre-ignition caused by overheating during continuous high-speed, heavy-load operation.

Key points


  • Idle stabilization control 'advances' ignition timing when idle speed drops to prevent speed fluctuation.

  • Dwell angle control 'makes the power transistor ON timing earlier' as engine speed rises to prevent primary current drop (delaying OFF timing is incorrect as it alters ignition timing).

  • A low heat range (hot type) spark plug has a 'longer insulator foot and larger gas pocket' than a high heat range (cold type) plug, retaining heat more easily.
WordMeaning
Electronic Spark Advance (ESA)
idle stabilization control (timing advance)
dwell angle control
low heat range (hot type) and high heat range (cold type)

Characteristics of Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) Sensors

A 'vacuum sensor (intake manifold pressure sensor)' that indirectly detects intake air quantity in a D-Jetronic system uses the piezo-resistive effect of a silicon chip and has the characteristic that 'output voltage increases as intake manifold absolute pressure increases (approaches atmospheric pressure)'.

A 'Hall-effect throttle position sensor' that detects throttle valve opening without contact varies the magnetic flux density passing through a Hall IC via a permanent magnet rotating with the throttle shaft, outputting a voltage proportional to throttle opening.

A 'zirconia O₂ sensor' that detects oxygen concentration in exhaust gas generates an electromotive force of about 1V when the 'oxygen concentration difference between exhaust gas and the atmosphere is large (on the rich side of the stoichiometric 14.7 ratio)', and drops to about 0V on the lean side.

Meanwhile, an 'air-fuel ratio sensor (A/F sensor)' that linearly (continuously) detects air-fuel ratio over a wide range has a linear characteristic where, referenced to stoichiometry, 'output voltage (signal) increases as the air-fuel ratio becomes leaner'.

Note that coolant temperature sensors and intake air temperature sensors use 'negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors', meaning resistance decreases and output voltage drops as temperature rises.

Characteristics of Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) Sensors

Key points


  • Vacuum sensor (manifold pressure sensor): output voltage becomes 'higher' as intake manifold pressure becomes 'higher'.

  • Zirconia O₂ sensor: generates an EMF of about 1V when the oxygen concentration difference with the atmosphere is 'large (when rich)'.

  • Air-fuel ratio (A/F) sensor: output voltage linearly becomes 'higher' as the mixture becomes 'leaner'.

  • Coolant and intake air temperature sensors (NTC thermistors): resistance and output voltage become 'lower' as temperature rises.
WordMeaning
vacuum sensor (intake manifold pressure sensor)
Hall-effect throttle position sensor
zirconia O₂ sensor
air-fuel ratio sensor (A/F sensor)

ECU Fuel Injection Control and Fail-Safe / Backup Functions

The engine ECU calculates 'basic injection duration' from intake air quantity and engine speed, adds warm-up enrichment, acceleration enrichment, and air-fuel ratio feedback correction, and then adds 'invalid injection duration' based on battery voltage to determine total injector energizing time.

'Invalid injection duration' (the delay time until the injector needle valve opens) becomes longer as battery voltage drops, so the ECU lengthens energizing time during low voltage to keep actual fuel injection quantity constant.

Additionally, during high-RPM deceleration with the throttle fully closed (fuel cut) or when engine speed or vehicle speed exceeds the maximum limit, the ECU temporarily stops fuel injection from the injectors to improve fuel economy and protect the engine.

When an abnormality such as an open or short circuit occurs in a sensor or harness, the function in which the ECU substitutes a pre-stored 'standard value (e.g., 80℃ for a coolant temp sensor fault)' to maintain minimum drivability is called the 'fail-safe function'.

Conversely, when the microcomputer (CPU) inside the ECU itself malfunctions or freezes, the function in which a dedicated backup IC switches fuel injection duration and ignition timing to 'fixed values' to enable limp-home driving is called the 'backup function'.

Key points


  • Invalid injection duration increases as battery voltage drops, so the ECU compensates by lengthening injector energizing time.

  • Continuing control using a standard value (simulated signal) during a sensor fault is the 'fail-safe function'.

  • Switching to fixed values via a backup IC for limp-home driving when the CPU itself fails is the 'backup function'.
WordMeaning
basic injection duration and invalid injection duration
air-fuel ratio feedback control
fail-safe function (standard value control)
backup function (fixed value control)

External Diagnostic Tester (Scan Tool) Functions and Clearing Trouble Codes

By connecting an 'external diagnostic tester (scan tool)' to the 'DLC (Data Link Connector: 16-pin)' near the driver's footwell, technicians can communicate with vehicle ECUs to perform advanced troubleshooting and maintenance support.

Representative scan tool functions include: (1) reading and clearing Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs), (2) reading 'Freeze Frame Data' that records engine conditions at the exact instant a fault was detected, and (3) 'Data Monitor' for viewing real-time sensor values.

Furthermore, there are: (4) 'Active Test', which forcibly drives actuators such as injectors, electronic throttle, or electric fans from the scan tool to verify operation, and (5) 'Work Support' functions for aiming or initial learning calibrations.

After repairing a fault, 'clearing Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs) using an external diagnostic tester (scan tool)' erases only the trouble codes and Freeze Frame Data stored in the ECU.

Unlike disconnecting the negative (-) battery terminal, clearing codes with a scan tool has the major advantage that 'clock settings, radio/audio memory, and learned values of other normal systems are NOT reset (initialized)'.

External Diagnostic Tester (Scan Tool) Functions and Clearing Trouble Codes

Key points


  • Clearing DTCs with an external scan tool erases trouble codes and Freeze Frame Data, but 'does NOT reset the clock, audio settings, or learned values'.

  • 'Freeze Frame Data' is recorded data of engine speed, coolant temperature, vehicle speed, etc. at the exact moment the ECU detected an abnormality.

  • 'Active Test' is a function that forcibly drives actuators from the scan tool to inspect their operating condition.
WordMeaning
external diagnostic tester (scan tool) and DLC
Diagnostic Trouble Code (DTC)
Freeze Frame Data
Data Monitor and Active Test

Common Exam Points and How to Remember Them

In the electrical and electronic control section of the Type 2 written exam, reverse-trap questions asking whether a value 'increases or decreases' appear every year, so organize and memorize the characteristics of each component.

Rule 1 covers batteries, alternators, and starters: '5-hour rate final voltage = 1.75V/cell; specific gravity = 1.280 at 20℃; higher temp & specific gravity = higher capacity & EMF', 'Alternator Y connection = has neutral point, superior low-speed output, smaller max current than Δ', 'Series-wound starter at 0 speed = max current & max torque'.

Rule 2 covers ignition and spark plugs: 'Idle speed drop = advance ignition timing', 'High-RPM dwell control = make ON timing earlier', 'Low heat range (hot type) spark plug = longer insulator foot and larger gas pocket'.

Rule 3 covers sensors and scan tools: 'Vacuum sensor = higher pressure gives higher voltage', 'A/F sensor = leaner mixture gives higher voltage', 'O₂ sensor = large oxygen difference (rich) outputs ~1V', 'Clearing DTCs with scan tool = clock and radio are not erased'.

Key points


  • Lead-acid battery: 5-hour final voltage 1.75V/cell, specific gravity 1.280 (20℃), higher temperature (below 50℃) yields larger capacity and EMF.

  • Alternator Y connection: has neutral point, excels in low-speed output, maximum output current is smaller than Δ connection.

  • Series-wound starter: when pinion speed is 0, counter-EMF is 0, and both armature current and torque are at maximum.

  • Ignition & plugs: 'advance' timing on idle drop, 'make ON timing earlier' at high RPM, low heat range plug has 'longer insulator foot and larger gas pocket'.

  • Sensors & scan tool: higher manifold pressure = higher voltage; leaner A/F = higher voltage; scan tool DTC clear = clock/learned values are preserved.
WordMeaning
final discharge voltage (1.75V)
Y connection (neutral point, low-speed output)
low heat range (hot type) spark plug
clearing Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs)

Electrical, Electronic Control & Scan Tools

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