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Electrical/Mechanical Materials, Machining Methods, and Quality Control (Conductors, Insulators, Measuring Tools, Machine Tools, 7 QC Tools)

Electrical Equipment Assembly – Control Panels 電気機器組立て (Grade 2 theory) · 技能検定「電気機器組立て」2級 学科(配電盤・制御盤組立て) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Conductive Materials (Conductivity Order: Silver > Copper > Gold > Aluminum > Iron) and Insulated Wires (IV, KIV, HIV)

At room temperature, the order in which metals conduct electricity most easily (highest conductivity = lowest resistivity) is: "Silver (Ag) > Copper (Cu) > Gold (Au) > Aluminum (Al) > Iron (Fe)" (conversely, from lowest to highest conductivity: "Iron < Aluminum < Gold < Copper < Silver").

Conductive copper includes "hard-drawn copper", which retains high mechanical strength after cold drawing and is used for busbars, and "annealed (soft) copper (for wires and windings)", which is softened by "annealing (heating and slow cooling)" hard-drawn copper to improve conductivity (standard annealed copper = 100%) and bending workability.

Note that during coil winding work for electrical equipment, applying excessive tension (pulling force) to a copper wire stretches the wire and reduces its cross-sectional area, causing the winding's "electrical resistance to increase (become larger)" (stating that resistance decreases is incorrect).

Aluminum has about 61% the conductivity of copper, but because its density (specific gravity approx. 2.7) is about 1/3 that of copper (approx. 8.9) and lightweight, it is used for transmission lines and large-current busbars. Also, copper alloys such as "phosphor bronze" and "brass" are used for contact strips and springs.

Among wires for internal panel wiring: "IV" is 600V vinyl insulated wire (heat resistance 60℃), "KIV" is electrical appliance vinyl insulated wire twisted from many fine annealed copper strands (60℃), and "HIV" is class-2 heat-resistant vinyl insulated wire (75℃). Regarding flexibility, "KIV is superior to IV", so KIV is widely used inside control panels.

Key points


  • The order of electrical conductivity at room temperature from highest to lowest is "Silver > Copper > Gold > Aluminum > Iron"

  • Annealing copper wire softens it for easier bending, whereas excessive tension during winding thins the wire and increases its electrical resistance

  • The symbol for 600V vinyl insulated wire is "IV", and "KIV (electrical appliance vinyl insulated wire)" made of fine stranded wires has superior flexibility compared to IV
WordMeaning
Order of electrical conductivity (Silver > Copper > Gold > Aluminum > Iron)
Annealing of soft copper wire and winding tension
600V vinyl insulated wire (IV) and heat-resistant vinyl insulated wire (HIV)
Electrical appliance vinyl insulated wire (KIV: high flexibility)

Insulating Materials (Gas, Liquid, Solid), Thermal Classes (Y, A, E, B, F, H), and Magnetic Materials

"Insulating materials" used in electrical equipment include gaseous insulators (air, nitrogen, SF6 gas, hydrogen), liquid insulators (mineral oil, silicone oil), and solid insulators (split mica, reconstituted mica, glass fiber, epoxy resin, phenolic resin, PTFE / tetrafluoroethylene resin, vinyl, polyethylene, ebonite, porcelain).

In written exams, questions asking "which of the following is NOT an insulating material" appear frequently, with "electrical steel sheet (silicon steel sheet)"—a magnetic material for iron cores—and "carbon"—a conductive material for brushes—presented as incorrect options.

"Thermal classes" of electrical equipment insulation defined in JIS C 4003 are arranged from lowest to highest maximum permissible temperature: "Y (90℃) → A (105℃) → E (120℃) → B (130℃) → F (155℃) → H (180℃) → N (200℃) → R (220℃)".

The order of the four lower-temperature classes—"Y (90℃), A (105℃), E (120℃), B (130℃)"—is especially important, as exams repeatedly feature trick questions swapping A and B to state "temperature increases in the order Y, B, E, A (incorrect)".

Furthermore, "silicon steel sheet (electrical steel sheet)" used for iron cores of transformers and motors is a magnetic material that adds a small amount of silicon to iron to increase permeability and reduce hysteresis loss, while laminating thin surface-insulated sheets reduces "eddy current loss".

Key points


  • Mica, epoxy resin, ebonite, and PTFE resin are insulating materials, whereas "electrical steel sheet (silicon steel sheet)" is a magnetic material and "carbon" is a conductive material

  • Insulation thermal classes in ascending order of permissible temperature are "Y (90℃) → A (105℃) → E (120℃) → B (130℃) → F (155℃) → H (180℃)"

  • Silicon steel sheet (electrical steel sheet) is a magnetic material laminated to reduce hysteresis loss and eddy current loss (iron loss) in iron cores
WordMeaning
Gaseous, liquid, and solid insulating materials (mica, ebonite, etc.)
Thermal classes (Y: 90℃, A: 105℃, E: 120℃, B: 130℃, F: 155℃, H: 180℃)
Silicon steel sheet (electrical steel sheet: magnetic material for cores)
Reduction of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss

Steel Materials (Carbon Content, JIS Material Symbols) and Heat Treatment (Quenching, Tempering, Annealing, Normalizing)

The mechanical properties of carbon steel vary greatly with its carbon content (0.02% to approx. 2%): as carbon content increases, "hardness" and "tensile strength" increase, while "elongation" and "reduction of area / toughness" decrease (stating that "mechanical properties do not change when carbon content changes" is incorrect).

Major JIS steel symbols include "SS400" for general structural rolled steel, "SPCC" for cold-rolled steel sheet used in control panel enclosures, "S45C (approx. 0.45% carbon)" for machine structural carbon steel, and "SUS304 (18%Cr-8%Ni, non-magnetic)" for corrosion-resistant austenitic stainless steel.

"Heat treatments" to improve steel properties include "quenching, tempering, annealing, and normalizing" as well as "surface hardening (carburizing, nitriding, induction hardening)". Heating steel to a high temperature and rapidly cooling it in water or oil to harden it is called "quenching".

Because as-quenched steel is overly hard and brittle, reheating it below the transformation temperature to "slightly reduce hardness and impart toughness" is called "tempering" (quenching and tempering are performed as a pair; stating that "tempering S45C makes it even harder" is incorrect).

Furthermore, heating steel and slowly cooling it inside a furnace to relieve internal stress and "soften it for easy machining" is called "annealing", while heating and cooling naturally in air to make the crystal grain structure uniform and fine is called "normalizing".

Key points


  • As carbon content in steel increases, hardness and tensile strength increase while elongation and toughness decrease

  • In heat treatment, "quenching" rapidly cools steel to harden it, and "tempering" removes post-quenching brittleness to impart toughness

  • Slow cooling in a furnace to soften steel is called "annealing", and air cooling to refine and homogenize grain structure is called "normalizing"
WordMeaning
Carbon content and mechanical properties of carbon steel
JIS material symbols (SS400, SPCC, S45C, SUS304)
Quenching (hardening) and tempering (imparting toughness)
Annealing (softening), normalizing, and surface hardening

Machine Elements (Thread Pitch and Lead, Plain Washers), Gear Speed Calculation, and Power Transmission

In screw threads, the "axial distance between adjacent thread peaks" is called "pitch (P)", and the "axial distance a screw advances in 1 full turn" is called "lead (L)". For a standard single-start thread, "lead = pitch", whereas for an n-start thread, "lead = n × pitch".

When mounting devices with a "synthetic resin (plastic) base" inside a panel using screws, a "plain washer (flat washer)" is placed on the bearing surface to distribute pressure and prevent clamping force from concentrating at one point and cracking or damaging the resin part. "Spring washers" and "double nuts" are used to prevent loosening.

When two gears mesh, rotational speed N is inversely proportional to the number of teeth Z: "N2 = N1 × (Z1 ÷ Z2)". For example, when a gear with Z1 = 12 teeth rotates at "200 min⁻¹" and meshes with a gear of Z2 = 48 teeth, the rotational speed of the driven gear is "200 × 12 ÷ 48 = 50 min⁻¹".

Furthermore, "helical gears" have tooth traces inclined relative to the shaft axis, resulting in smoother meshing and less noise and vibration than spur gears. Bearings supporting a shaft include "radial bearings" supporting loads perpendicular to the shaft and "thrust bearings" supporting axial loads.

Among power transmission elements, a device that permanently connects two shafts is a "shaft coupling", one that can engage or disengage power transmission during operation is a "clutch", and a rod linkage mechanism converting rotary motion into reciprocating or oscillating motion is a "link mechanism (or cam mechanism)".

Key points


  • The distance between adjacent thread peaks is "pitch", the distance advanced in 1 revolution is "lead", and "plain washers" are used when mounting resin-base devices to prevent breakage

  • When a 12-tooth gear rotating at 200 min⁻¹ meshes with a 48-tooth gear, the rotational speed of the 48-tooth gear is "200 × 12 ÷ 48 = 50 min⁻¹"

  • A device that engages/disengages shaft power during operation is a "clutch", and a mechanism converting rotary motion into reciprocating/oscillating motion is a "link or cam mechanism"
WordMeaning
Screw pitch (peak-to-peak distance) and lead (advance per revolution)
Plain washer (preventing resin base damage) and spring washer
Gear tooth ratio and rotational speed calculation
Shaft coupling, clutch, link mechanism, and radial bearing

Shop Measuring Instruments (Vernier Caliper Parts and Reading an Outside Micrometer)

A "vernier caliper (minimum reading 0.05mm, etc.)" can perform four types of measurements with a single tool: outside diameter is measured with the "outer jaws", hole inside diameter with the upper "inner jaws (beaks)", and groove or hole depth with the "depth bar" extending from the end of the main beam (stating that "the depth bar measures hole inside diameter" is incorrect).

An "outside micrometer", which precisely measures plate thickness or round bar outer diameter in "0.01 mm" increments, has an internal screw pitch of "0.5 mm", so turning the rotating barrel (thimble) 1 full revolution advances the measuring spindle by "0.5 mm".

The circumference of the thimble is divided into 50 equal graduations, each representing "0.5 ÷ 50 = 0.01 mm". To read the measurement, read "1 mm increments" above the datum line on the fixed barrel (sleeve) and "0.5 mm increments" on the lower sub-scale, then add the "0.01 mm increments" on the thimble.

For example, when the upper sleeve scale passes 7 mm, the lower 0.5 mm line is visible (7.5 mm), and graduation "15 (= 0.15 mm)" on the thimble aligns with the datum line, the measured value is "7.5 + 0.15 = 7.65 mm" (take care not to overlook the 0.5 mm graduation).

When measuring with a micrometer, turn the "ratchet stop" at the end until it clicks freely to maintain constant measuring force. Other instruments include "dial gauges" for surface unevenness or shaft runout, "height gauges" for measuring height and scribing on a surface plate, and "feeler (thickness) gauges" for measuring joint clearances.

Shop Measuring Instruments (Vernier Caliper Parts and Reading an Outside Micrometer)

Key points


  • The "depth bar" of a vernier caliper is for measuring depth, whereas the "inner jaws" are used to measure the inside diameter of a hole

  • An outside micrometer (minimum reading 0.01mm) is read by summing the "1mm + 0.5mm graduations" on the sleeve and the "0.01mm graduations" on the thimble

  • When measuring with a micrometer, use the "ratchet stop" to bring the spindle into contact under constant measuring force
WordMeaning
Vernier caliper (outer jaws, inner jaws, depth bar)
Outside micrometer (0.01mm minimum reading, ratchet stop)
Reading the sleeve (0.5mm scale) and thimble (0.01mm scale)
Dial gauge, height gauge, and feeler (thickness) gauge

Layout, Hand Finishing, Machine Tools (Lathe, Drilling Machine), Stress Calculation, and Notch Effect

In pre-machining "layout (scribing) work", a "prick punch" with a 30°–60° tip angle is used to punch small witness dots along a scribed line so it remains visible, whereas a "center punch" with a 90° tip angle is used to punch a dimple at the center of a hole to prevent the drill tip from wandering.

In "tapping work" to cut internal threads, drill a "tap drill hole" smaller than the thread outer diameter by the pitch (e.g., φ5.0mm for M6×1.0) and turn the tap wrench while keeping it perpendicular. Among machine tools, a machine that rotates the workpiece and feeds a single-point cutting tool (bite) to turn cylindrical shapes is called a "lathe".

In contrast, a machine that rotates a drill or reamer to drill or finish holes is a "drilling machine (drill press)", and one that rotates a multi-tooth cutter (milling cutter) to machine flat surfaces or slots is a "milling machine". In cutting, increasing depth of cut or feed so that "cutting cross-sectional area increases causes cutting resistance (cutting force) to increase".

Internal force per unit cross-sectional area is "stress = load W ÷ area A", and stress is proportional to strain within the elastic limit. When supporting a tensile load of 1000N with a round bar of allowable stress 20N/mm², the required area is "1000 ÷ 20 = 50mm²", and from circle area "0.785 × d² ≥ 50", the diameter d is "approx. 8mm".

Furthermore, if a round bar or plate has a "notch (groove or step)", stress concentrates at its bottom, making it prone to fracture (notch effect). For notches of equal depth, a "smooth circular-arc notch with a large bottom radius (R)" produces the least stress concentration and is strongest compared to sharp V-shaped or square notches.

Layout, Hand Finishing, Machine Tools (Lathe, Drilling Machine), Stress Calculation, and Notch Effect

Key points


  • Use a "prick punch" for witness marks along scribed lines and a "center punch" for drill hole centers; a machine tool that rotates the workpiece and cuts with a turning tool is a "lathe"

  • For a 1000N tensile load and 20N/mm² allowable stress, the required cross-sectional area is "1000 ÷ 20 = 50mm²", giving a round bar diameter of "approx. 8mm"

  • In notched members, a "circular-arc notch with a large bottom radius (R)" has less stress concentration and resists fracture better than sharp-cornered notches
WordMeaning
Prick punch, center punch, and hand tap
Lathe (rotating workpiece), drilling machine, and milling machine
Tensile stress calculation (stress = load ÷ area) and Hooke's law
Stress concentration at notches and the effect of corner radius (R)

Soldering (Role of Flux and Characteristics of Lead-Free Solder), Sheet Metal Work, and Welding

The primary role of "flux (rosin-based)" used in "soldering" electrical wiring and electronic boards is to "chemically remove oxide films (rust or tarnish) from the metal surface during heating, prevent re-oxidation, and lower the surface tension of molten solder to improve wettability (spreading)".

Non-corrosive "rosin-based flux (rosin-core solder)" must be used for electrical equipment wiring; corrosive fluxes such as zinc chloride or hydrochloric acid (for sheet metal) must never be used because they later corrode and break conductors or degrade insulation.

In recent years, for environmental protection (restrictions on lead use under the RoHS Directive, etc.), "lead-free solder" composed of tin, silver, and copper (Sn-Ag-Cu) has become the standard.

Compared to conventional tin-lead eutectic solder (melting point approx. 183℃), lead-free solder is characterized by a "higher melting point of approx. 217–220℃", "slightly poorer solder wettability (spreadability)", and "less surface gloss after cooling (prone to a matte finish or shrinkage cavities)".

Furthermore, in thin steel sheet fabrication for control panel enclosures, shearing machines are used for cutting, press brakes for bending (bending slightly extra to allow for elastic "springback"), along with spot welding (resistance welding), TIG welding, and arc welding.

Key points


  • The main role of soldering "flux" is to remove oxide films from metal surfaces and improve the "wettability" of molten solder

  • Compared to conventional tin-lead solder, "lead-free solder" features a "higher melting point, slightly poorer wettability, and less surface gloss"

  • In sheet metal bending, account for "springback", where the bend angle springs back slightly when the load is removed
WordMeaning
Role of flux (oxide film removal and wettability improvement)
Lead-free solder (high melting point, wettability, RoHS compliance)
Sheet metal bending and springback
Spot welding (resistance welding) and arc welding

Quality Control (7 QC Tools: Cause-and-Effect, Pareto, Control Chart, Scatter Diagram) and Inspection

Among the "7 QC Tools" used in factory quality control (QC), a "cause-and-effect diagram (fishbone diagram)" systematically organizes the relationship between a product quality characteristic (effect/result) and the factors affecting it (causes such as materials, machines, and work methods) using arrows.

A "Pareto chart" combines a bar graph arranging defect or complaint counts by category in descending order with a line graph showing cumulative percentage (cumulative curve), making it immediately clear which defect item should be prioritized for improvement.

A "control chart (such as an X-bar-R control chart)" determines whether a manufacturing process is in a stable state by drawing an upper control limit (UCL) and lower control limit (LCL) above and below a center line (CL) and plotting time-series measurements to monitor for abnormal causes.

A "histogram" divides the range of measured values into intervals and represents frequency by bar height to observe data dispersion and mean distribution. A "scatter diagram" plots paired variables (x and y) on vertical and horizontal axes to examine the "correlation" between two datasets.

Written exams every year feature trick questions that "swap the explanations of cause-and-effect diagrams and control charts" or "give the definition of a Pareto chart as the explanation for a scatter diagram". Inspections include "100% (full) inspection" and "sampling inspection (essential for destructive testing)".

Quality Control (7 QC Tools: Cause-and-Effect, Pareto, Control Chart, Scatter Diagram) and Inspection

Key points


  • A diagram organizing the relationship between quality "effects (characteristics)" and "causes (factors)" in a fishbone shape is called a "cause-and-effect diagram"

  • A chart showing defect items as a descending bar graph with a cumulative curve is a "Pareto chart", and a diagram examining correlation between 2 variables is a "scatter diagram"

  • A chart with upper and lower "control limit lines (UCL, LCL)" used to monitor whether a process is in a stable state is called a "control chart"
WordMeaning
Cause-and-effect diagram (systematic organization of effects and causes)
Pareto chart (bar graph + cumulative curve) and histogram
Control chart (upper/lower control limits and process stability monitoring)
Scatter diagram (correlation), 100% inspection, and sampling inspection

Materials, Machining & Quality Control

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Official references

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