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Basic Electrical Theory

Class 2 Electrician 第二種電気工事士 (written exam) · 第二種電気工事士(学科試験) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Ohm's Law, DC Series-Parallel Circuits, Voltage Division and Current Division

In the Second-Class Electrician written exam, Questions 1 through 5 of Part 1 are calculation problems on basic electrical theory. Calculators are prohibited, but mastering the fundamental formulas and standard integer ratios makes these questions a reliable source of points.

When a voltage V (V) is applied across a resistor R (Ω), the resulting current I (A) is expressed as "I = V ÷ R", voltage as "V = I × R", and resistance as "R = V ÷ I". This is known as Ohm's Law and serves as the starting point for all circuit calculations.

In a series connection where multiple resistors are joined along a single path, the same current I flows through every resistor, and the combined resistance is a simple sum: "R = R1 + R2". The source voltage V is divided across each resistor in direct proportion to its resistance value.

Conversely, in a parallel connection where resistors branch out, the voltage V across each branch is equal. The combined resistance of two resistors in parallel can be quickly calculated using the "product over sum" rule: "R = (R1 × R2) ÷ (R1 + R2)".

In particular, the rule that "connecting n identical resistors of value R in parallel gives a combined resistance of R ÷ n" is tested very frequently. Also, current in a parallel circuit divides in inverse proportion to branch resistance, so a larger current flows through the branch with smaller resistance.

Key points


  • Freely convert among the three forms of Ohm's Law: "V = I × R", "I = V ÷ R", and "R = V ÷ I".

  • In series circuits, current is constant, combined resistance is "R1 + R2", and voltage divides proportionally to resistance.

  • For two parallel resistors, use "(R1 × R2) ÷ (R1 + R2)"; for n identical resistors R in parallel, the combined resistance is "R ÷ n".

  • Example: A series circuit of R1 = 8Ω and R2 = 12Ω connected to 100V → Combined resistance R = 8 + 12 = 20Ω, current I = 100 ÷ 20 = 5A, voltage across R1 is V1 = 5 × 8 = 40V

  • Example: A parallel circuit of 20Ω and 30Ω carrying 10A total current → Combined resistance R = (20 × 30) ÷ (20 + 30) = 12Ω, current through the 20Ω branch is I1 = 10 × 30 ÷ (20 + 30) = 6A
WordMeaning
Ohm's Law
series connection and parallel connection
combined resistance (equivalent resistance)
voltage division and current division

Kirchhoff's Laws and Wheatstone Bridge Balance Condition

Kirchhoff's Laws are used to find currents and voltages in complex DC circuits. The First Law (Current Law) states that "at any node (junction) in a circuit, the sum of currents flowing in equals the sum of currents flowing out."

The Second Law (Voltage Law) states that "around any closed loop in a circuit, the sum of source electromotive forces equals the sum of voltage drops (I × R) across each resistor." Both laws are essential for solving the series-parallel networks in Question 1.

Another classic exam topic is the "Wheatstone bridge circuit" used to accurately measure an unknown resistance. It consists of four resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4 arranged in a diamond with a sensitive galvanometer G connected across the center.

The state in which no current flows through the center galvanometer G (0 A) is called the "balanced state." When balanced, the products of the resistances on opposite sides are equal: "R1 × R4 = R2 × R3".

When the bridge is balanced, zero current flows through the center galvanometer branch. Therefore, when calculating the total combined resistance of the entire circuit, you simply remove the center galvanometer G and calculate it as two series branches connected in parallel.

Key points


  • Kirchhoff's First Law: The sum of currents entering a junction equals the sum of currents leaving it.

  • Wheatstone bridge balance condition (galvanometer G current is 0 A): Products of opposite arms are equal, "R1 × R4 = R2 × R3".

  • To find total bridge resistance when balanced, ignore the center galvanometer G wire and compute as a series-parallel circuit.

  • Example: In a balanced Wheatstone bridge with R1 = 4Ω, R2 = 8Ω, R3 = 6Ω → R4 = 8 × 6 ÷ 4 = 12Ω; total resistance of upper branch (4 + 6 = 10Ω) and lower branch (8 + 12 = 20Ω) is R = (10 × 20) ÷ (10 + 20) ≈ 6.7Ω

  • Example: If 9A enters a junction and 4A leaves through one branch → Current in the other branch is I = 9 − 4 = 5A (in a 30V closed loop where 9A flows through a 2Ω resistor, voltage drop across the remaining resistor is V = 30 − 2 × 9 = 12V)
WordMeaning
Kirchhoff's Laws
Wheatstone bridge circuit
galvanometer
balanced state

Conductor Resistance (Length, Cross-Section, Diameter) and Temperature Effect

Question 2 regularly tests the calculation of electrical resistance R of a conductor such as a copper wire. Conductor resistance R (Ω) is directly proportional to the material's "resistivity ρ (rho)" and "length L (m)", and inversely proportional to its "cross-sectional area A (mm²)" (R = ρ × L ÷ A).

When the thickness of a solid round wire is given as "diameter D (mm)", since the area of a circle is "A = π × D² ÷ 4", the resistance formula becomes "R = (4 × ρ × L) ÷ (π × D²)".

The most important ironclad rule here is that "wire resistance R is proportional to length L and inversely proportional to the square of diameter D (D²)." Doubling the diameter D quadruples the cross-sectional area, so for the same length, resistance drops to "one-fourth (1/4)".

Therefore, in problems asking which copper wire has the "exact same resistance" as a wire of diameter d and length l, look for the option with the same ratio of "length ÷ diameter squared." If the diameter is doubled (2d), the length must be quadrupled (4l) to keep resistance equal.

Note that metallic conductors such as copper and aluminum have a property where electrical resistance increases slightly as temperature rises (positive temperature coefficient of resistance). Electrical conductivity of wires is expressed as a percentage relative to standard annealed copper (approx. 100%).

Conductor Resistance (Length, Cross-Section, Diameter) and Temperature Effect

Key points


  • Wire resistance in terms of cross-sectional area A (mm²) is "R = ρ × L ÷ A", proportional to length L and inversely proportional to area A.

  • Wire resistance in terms of diameter D (mm) is "R = (4 × ρ × L) ÷ (π × D²)", inversely proportional to diameter squared D².

  • Doubling diameter quadruples area and cuts resistance to 1/4, so quadrupling length restores the original resistance.

  • Example: A copper wire with area A = 5.5mm² and length L = 110m (resistivity ρ = 0.0172 Ω·mm²/m) → Wire resistance R = 0.0172 × 110 ÷ 5.5 = 0.344Ω

  • Example: A wire of the same material as a 1.2Ω wire with 2 times the diameter and 2 times the length → Since area increases by 2 × 2 = 4 times, resistance R = 1.2 × 2 ÷ 4 = 0.6Ω
WordMeaning
resistivity (ρ)
cross-sectional area (mm²) and diameter (mm)
electrical conductivity
temperature coefficient of resistance

Electric Power, Electric Energy, Joule's Law and Water Heating Calculations

Question 3 tests calculations of heat generation and electric energy from current. The rate of electrical work consumed per second is "electric power P (unit: W)", calculated using three formulas: "P = V × I = I² × R = V² ÷ R".

Multiplying power P (W) by usage time t (h: hours) gives "electric energy W (unit: Wh or kWh)". Meanwhile, multiplying power P (W) by "time in seconds t (s: seconds)" gives the generated heat (Joule heat) Q (unit: J): "Q = P × t = I² × R × t (J)".

Time unit conversion is the key point: 1 hour equals "60 minutes = 3,600 seconds." Thus "1 Wh = 3,600 W·s = 3,600 J = 3.6 kJ", and memorizing the conversion "1 kWh = 3,600 kJ" speeds up your calculations dramatically.

When an electric water heater raises the temperature of a mass m (kg; 1 L of water is 1 kg) of water by Δt (°C or K), the required heat Q (kJ) is found using the specific heat of water "c = 4.2 kJ/(kg·K)" via the formula "Q = 4.2 × m × Δt (kJ)".

If thermal efficiency is 100% (ignoring heat loss), set "heater output heat P × t = heat absorbed by water 4.2 × m × Δt" to solve for heating time or electric energy. If a thermal efficiency (eta) is given, only the heater output multiplied by contributes to heating the water.

Key points


  • Electric power is "P = V × I = I² × R = V² ÷ R (W)", and heat generated is found by multiplying by seconds: "Q = I² × R × t (J)".

  • Because 1 hour = 3,600 seconds, always memorize the conversions "1 Wh = 3.6 kJ" and "1 kWh = 3,600 kJ".

  • Heat needed to warm m (kg) of water by Δt (K) is "Q = 4.2 × m × Δt (kJ)"; dividing by 3,600 converts it into electric energy (kWh).

  • Example: Using a 100V, 1,500W electric heater for 20 minutes (1,200 seconds) → Heat generated Q = 1,500 × 1,200 = 1,800,000J = 1,800kJ (electric energy W = 1,800 ÷ 3,600 = 0.5kWh)

  • Example: Heat and electric energy needed to raise 30kg of water by 20K (20℃, 100% efficiency) → Q = 4.2 × 30 × 20 = 2,520kJ, electric energy W = 2,520 ÷ 3,600 = 0.7kWh
WordMeaning
electric power (W) and electric energy (Wh, kWh)
Joule's Law and heat quantity (J, kJ)
specific heat of water (4.2 kJ/kg·K)
thermal efficiency

Electrostatics, Series-Parallel Capacitors and Basics of Electromagnetism

A component that stores electric charge between two facing metal plates (electrodes) is a capacitor, and its charge-storing capability is called "capacitance C (unit: F or μF)". The stored charge Q (C) is expressed as "Q = C × V".

The capacitance C of a parallel-plate capacitor is directly proportional to the plate area S and the permittivity ε of the insulating dielectric between the plates, and inversely proportional to the distance d between plates. Wider plates and a narrower gap store more charge.

The formulas for combined capacitance are "opposite to those for series and parallel resistors." Parallel connection increases total plate area, giving a simple sum "C = C1 + C2", whereas series connection follows product over sum "C = (C1 × C2) ÷ (C1 + C2)".

In electromagnetism, when a current I (A) flows through a wire of length L (m) placed in a magnetic field of flux density B (T), an electromagnetic force "F = B × I × L (N)" acts in the direction given by Fleming's Left-Hand Rule (the principle behind electric motors).

Conversely, when the magnetic flux passing through a coil changes over time, an induced electromotive force is generated in a direction that opposes the change (Lenz's Law). This is Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction, the fundamental principle of generators and transformers.

Key points


  • Capacitor charge is "Q = C × V"; capacitance C is proportional to plate area and inversely proportional to plate separation.

  • Combined capacitance is the reverse of resistance: parallel adds as "C1 + C2", and two in series use "(C1 × C2) ÷ (C1 + C2)".

  • Electromagnetic force on a current in a magnetic field is "F = B × I × L (N)"; the Left-Hand Rule applies to motors and the Right-Hand Rule to generators.

  • Example: Two capacitors of 10μF and 40μF → Parallel capacitance is 10 + 40 = 50μF, series capacitance is (10 × 40) ÷ (10 + 40) = 8μF (applying 100V to 8μF gives charge Q = 8 × 100 = 800μC)

  • Example: A conductor of length L = 0.5m placed perpendicular to a magnetic field of flux density B = 0.4T carrying current I = 15A → Electromagnetic force F = 0.4 × 15 × 0.5 = 3N
WordMeaning
capacitance (F, μF)
permittivity (dielectric constant)
electromagnetic force (Fleming's Left-Hand Rule)
law of electromagnetic induction

Single-Phase AC Basics (RMS Value, Peak Value, Frequency, Reactance)

Electricity supplied to homes and factories is alternating current (AC), whose direction and magnitude vary sinusoidally over time. Everyday ratings such as 100 V AC or 200 V AC represent the "effective (RMS) value V" that performs the same work as an equivalent DC voltage.

The crest of a sine wave, called the "maximum (peak) value Vm", is "√2 times (approx. 1.41 times)" the effective value V (Vm = √2 × V). For example, an AC voltage with an effective value of 100 V reaches a peak of about 141 V, and 200 V RMS reaches about 283 V.

The number of wave cycles per second is "frequency f (unit: Hz)", which is the reciprocal of the time for one cycle, "period T (seconds)", via "T = 1 ÷ f". Japan's commercial power frequency is 50 Hz (T = 0.02 s) in eastern Japan and 60 Hz in western Japan.

Connecting a coil (inductance L in H) to an AC circuit creates opposition to current change called "inductive reactance XL (Ω)". Its formula is "XL = 2πfL", increasing proportionally with frequency f, and the current phase lags behind the voltage by 90 degrees.

Conversely, connecting a capacitor (capacitance C in F) creates "capacitive reactance XC = 1 ÷ (2πfC) (Ω)". XC is inversely proportional to frequency f, and the current phase leads the voltage by 90 degrees.

Single-Phase AC Basics (RMS Value, Peak Value, Frequency, Reactance)

Key points


  • The peak value of a sine wave is "Vm = √2 × RMS value V" (approx. 141 V for 100 V RMS), and period is "T = 1 ÷ f".

  • A coil's inductive reactance is "XL = 2πfL (Ω)", proportional to frequency f, with current lagging voltage by 90 degrees.

  • A capacitor's capacitive reactance is "XC = 1 ÷ (2πfC) (Ω)", inversely proportional to frequency f, with current leading voltage by 90 degrees.

  • Example: An AC supply of 200V RMS at 60Hz → Peak voltage Vm = 1.41 × 200 = 282V, period T = 1 ÷ 60 ≈ 0.0167 s (inductive reactance of coil L = 0.05H is XL = 2 × 3.14 × 60 × 0.05 = 18.84Ω)

  • Example: Connecting a capacitor C = 0.0001F (100μF) to a 50Hz, 100V AC circuit → Capacitive reactance XC = 1 ÷ (2 × 3.14 × 50 × 0.0001) ≈ 31.8Ω, current IC = 100 ÷ 31.8 ≈ 3.14A
WordMeaning
effective (RMS) value and peak value (Vm = √2V)
frequency (Hz) and period (T = 1 ÷ f)
inductive reactance (XL = 2πfL)
capacitive reactance (XC)

Single-Phase AC Series-Parallel Circuits, Impedance, Power and Power Factor

In single-phase AC circuits tested in Question 4, because there is a 90-degree phase difference between resistor R and reactance X (coil XL or capacitor XC), quantities cannot be added algebraically but must be combined using a "right triangle (Pythagorean theorem)."

In a circuit with R and X in "series", the total opposition to current, called "impedance Z (Ω)", is "Z = √(R² + X²)", current is "I = V ÷ Z", and the power factor is "cosφ = R ÷ Z".

Conversely, in a circuit with R and X in "parallel", the source voltage V is applied directly across each branch, so first calculate resistor current "IR = V ÷ R" and reactance current "IX = V ÷ X" separately. Total current is "I = √(IR² + IX²)", and power factor is "cosφ = IR ÷ I".

Almost 100% of exam numbers are built on "3 : 4 : 5" or "6 : 8 : 10" right triangles. For instance, in a series circuit with R = 8 Ω and XL = 6 Ω, you can immediately tell without calculation that impedance Z = 10 Ω and power factor cosφ = 8 ÷ 10 = 0.8 (80%).

Furthermore, the power actually consumed as heat or work in an AC circuit, called "active power (true power) P (unit: W)", is "P = V × I × cosφ". Only "resistor R consumes energy (P = IR² × R)"; power consumption in ideal coils and capacitors is 0 W.

Key points


  • Series R-X circuit: Impedance "Z = √(R² + X²)", current "I = V ÷ Z", and power factor "cosφ = R ÷ Z".

  • Parallel R-X circuit: From branch currents "IR = V ÷ R" and "IX = V ÷ X", find total current "I = √(IR² + IX²)" and power factor "cosφ = IR ÷ I".

  • Use the golden right-triangle ratio "3 : 4 : 5 (6 : 8 : 10)", and compute active power via "P = V × I × cosφ = IR² × R (W)".

  • Example: A series circuit with resistance R = 8Ω and reactance X = 6Ω connected to 200V → Impedance Z = 10Ω (8:6:10), current I = 200 ÷ 10 = 20A, power factor cosφ = 8 ÷ 10 = 0.8, active power P = 200 × 20 × 0.8 = 3,200W

  • Example: Connecting R = 20Ω and X = 15Ω in parallel across a single-phase 120V supply → Branch currents IR = 120 ÷ 20 = 6A, IX = 120 ÷ 15 = 8A, total current I = 10A (6:8:10), power factor cosφ = 6 ÷ 10 = 0.6
WordMeaning
impedance (Z)
power factor (cosφ)
active power (W) and apparent power (VA)
reactive power (var)

Three-Phase 3-Wire AC Circuits (Voltage, Current and Power in Y and Δ Connections)

Question 5 covers "balanced three-phase 3-wire AC circuits" used for 200 V motor power in factories and shops. There are two ways to connect the three phase loads: "Star connection (Y-connection)" and "Delta connection (Δ-connection)".

Voltage between outer line wires is called "line voltage Vl" and current in the line wires is "line current Il"; voltage across a single phase load is "phase voltage Vp" and current through a single phase load is "phase current Ip".

In a "Y-connection (Star)", each line wire feeds directly into one phase load, so line current equals phase current (Il = Ip), while line voltage is √3 times phase voltage (Vl = √3 × Vp, so Vp = Vl ÷ √3).

Conversely, in a "Δ-connection (Delta)", line voltage is applied directly across each phase load, so voltages are equal (Vl = Vp), while line current is √3 times phase current (Il = √3 × Ip). In exam calculations, always use "√3 = 1.73".

Total power consumption P (W) of the entire three-phase circuit, whether Y or Δ connected, is easily found by "P = √3 × Vl × Il × cosφ" or as "three times the resistor power of one phase: P = 3 × Ip² × R".

Three-Phase 3-Wire AC Circuits (Voltage, Current and Power in Y and Δ Connections)

Key points


  • Y-connection (Star): Currents are equal "Il = Ip", and line voltage is √3 times phase voltage "Vl = √3 × Vp".

  • Δ-connection (Delta): Voltages are equal "Vl = Vp", and line current is √3 times phase current "Il = √3 × Ip" (use √3 = 1.73).

  • Three-phase power consumption is calculated by "P = √3 × Vl × Il × cosφ" or three times one phase "P = 3 × Ip² × R (W)".

  • Example: Applying 200V line voltage to a Δ-connected load with phase impedance Z = 8Ω (R = 6.4Ω, power factor cosφ = 0.8) → Phase current Ip = 200 ÷ 8 = 25A, line current Il = 1.73 × 25 = 43.25A, 3-phase power P = 3 × 25 × 25 × 6.4 = 12,000W (12kW)

  • Example: In a Y-connected circuit with phase voltage Vp = 100V and phase impedance Z = 5Ω (power factor cosφ = 0.8) → Line voltage Vl = 1.73 × 100 = 173V, line current Il = 100 ÷ 5 = 20A, 3-phase power P = 3 × 100 × 20 × 0.8 = 4,800W
WordMeaning
star connection (Y-connection)
delta connection (Δ-connection)
line voltage and phase voltage
line current and phase current

Frequently Tested Points & Memory Aids

In Question 2 on wire resistance, always check whether the problem gives "cross-sectional area A (mm²) or diameter D (mm)." Doubling diameter D quadruples the area (2² = 4), reducing resistance to "1/4" rather than 1/2.

In Question 3 on heat calculations, memorizing "1 kWh = 3,600 kJ" and the specific heat of water "4.2 kJ/(kg·K)" lets you solve directly by substitution. In Question 4 on AC circuits, sketching a "3 : 4 : 5" or "6 : 8 : 10" right triangle gives impedance and power factor mentally.

For Question 5 on three-phase AC, visualize the shape: "Y-connection is a straight path from line to phase so Current is equal (Il = Ip, voltage × √3); Δ-connection clamps the load across two lines so Voltage is equal (Vl = Vp, current × √3)."

Key points


  • Parallel resistance: For 2 resistors use "product over sum (R1 × R2) ÷ (R1 + R2)"; for n identical resistors R use "R ÷ n".

  • Wheatstone bridge balance (0 A in galvanometer): Products of opposite arms are equal, "R1 × R4 = R2 × R3".

  • Round wire resistance: Proportional to length L, inversely proportional to diameter squared D² (2× diameter and 4× length gives equal resistance).

  • Heat & Electric Energy: 1 kWh = 3,600 kJ; water heating formula "Q = 4.2 × mass m × temperature rise Δt (kJ)".

  • AC & Three-Phase: Combining 6 Ω and 8 Ω gives 10 Ω / Y-connection: "Vl = √3Vp, Il = Ip"; Δ-connection: "Vl = Vp, Il = √3Ip" (√3 = 1.73).
WordMeaning
product-over-sum rule
3 : 4 : 5 right triangle
1 kWh = 3,600 kJ conversion
three-phase power (P = √3VlIlcosφ)

Basic Electrical Theory

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