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Understanding Development and Aging

National Exam for Certified Care Workers 介護福祉士 · 介護福祉士国家試験(筆記) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Principles of Human Growth and Development, Infant Motor Milestones, and Attachment

Human development refers to the lifelong process of qualitative and quantitative physical and psychological changes from conception to death, emphasizing a Lifespan Development perspective that continues through old age.

Physical development in infants follows specific directions: the Cephalocaudal Law (progressing from head to toe) and the Proximodistal Law (progressing from the center of the body outward to the extremities).

Gross motor milestones in infancy include head control around 3–4 months, rolling over around 5–6 months, sitting without support around 7–8 months, pulling to stand around 9–10 months, and independent walking around 1 year of age.

Psychologist John Bowlby termed the emotional bond formed between an infant and caregiver Attachment, explaining that it serves as a Secure Base for future interpersonal relationships and exploratory behavior.

Jean Piaget proposed the theory of cognitive development stages, stating that infants acquire Object Permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight) during the sensorimotor stage (0–2 years), while egocentrism and animism appear during the preoperational stage (2–7 years).

Key points


  • Infant motor development progresses in order: Head control -> Rolling over -> Sitting -> Pulling to stand -> Independent walking

  • Bowlby proposed Attachment as the emotional bond between an infant and caregiver

  • Piaget demonstrated that Object Permanence is established during the sensorimotor stage
WordMeaning
Lifespan development
Head control (around 3–4 months)
Attachment
Object permanence

Developmental Stages and Tasks of Erikson and Havighurst

Psychologist Erik Erikson proposed the Life Cycle Theory, dividing life into eight stages and identifying the psychosocial crisis (developmental task) to overcome and the virtue gained at each stage.

The themes are Basic Trust vs. Mistrust in infancy, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt in early childhood, Initiative vs. Guilt in play age, and Industry vs. Inferiority in school age.

Subsequently, the task of adolescence is Identity vs. Identity Diffusion, young adulthood is Intimacy vs. Isolation, and middle adulthood is Generativity (nurturing the next generation) vs. Stagnation.

In the final stage of old age, the task is Ego Integrity vs. Despair; accepting one's life as irreplaceable leads to the acquisition of Wisdom.

Educator Robert Havighurst also outlined developmental tasks across six stages, identifying tasks of old age such as adjusting to declining physical strength and health, adjusting to retirement and reduced income, and adjusting to the death of a spouse.

Developmental Stages and Tasks of Erikson and Havighurst

Key points


  • In Erikson's theory, adolescence centers on Identity and middle adulthood centers on Generativity

  • Erikson's stage for old age is Ego Integrity vs. Despair, with Wisdom as the resulting strength

  • Havighurst listed adapting to declining health, retirement, and death of a spouse as developmental tasks of old age
WordMeaning
Identity
Generativity
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Havighurst's developmental tasks

Age-Related Changes in Intellectual Function and Psychology, and Experiences of Loss

Psychologists Cattell and Horn divided human intelligence into Fluid Intelligence and Crystallized Intelligence to explain age-related changes.

Fluid Intelligence—which involves adaptability to new situations and speed of calculation and memorization—peaks in one's twenties and tends to decline with aging.

Conversely, Crystallized Intelligence—based on lifelong learning, life experience, verbal knowledge, and judgment—has the major strength of being maintained or even continuing to improve gradually after one's sixties.

In old age, four major losses (the Four Losses of Aging) often overlap: loss of physical and mental health, loss of economic independence, loss of connections with family and society, and loss of purpose in life.

Because these experiences of loss can easily lead to depression or social withdrawal, care workers support Life Review (reminiscence) to reflect on past life experiences and help maintain current roles and self-esteem.

Key points


  • Fluid Intelligence (processing new information and memorization speed) tends to decline with age

  • Crystallized Intelligence (life experience, knowledge, and judgment) is well preserved even in old age

  • Psychological support for the Four Losses of old age (health, economy, connections, purpose in life) is vital
WordMeaning
Fluid intelligence
Crystallized intelligence
Experience of loss
Life review (reminiscence)

Age-Related Changes in Sensory Organs (Vision, Hearing, Taste, etc.)

Age-related visual changes commonly include Presbyopia (difficulty focusing on close objects due to decreased lens elasticity) and Senile Cataracts (clouding of the lens causing glare and blurred vision).

Older adults also experience reduced light-dark adaptation (especially dark adaptation when entering a dark room from a bright place), reduced dynamic visual acuity and visual field, and yellowing of the lens that makes it harder to distinguish cool or similar colors such as blue and black or white and yellow.

In hearing, degeneration of hair cells in the cochlea of the inner ear causes Presbycusis (age-related hearing loss), which characteristically begins with difficulty hearing high-frequency sounds (high-pitched tones).

In addition, older adults often exhibit the Recruitment Phenomenon (soft sounds are hard to hear, but sounds above a certain volume suddenly reverberate unpleasantly loudly) and decreased speech discrimination (hearing the sound of voices but struggling to understand the words).

Sensitivity of taste, smell, skin temperature/pain sensation, and the thirst center also dulls with age, requiring careful attention to excessive salt intake, low-temperature burns (from hot water bottles, etc.), and dehydration due to lack of perceived thirst.

Key points


  • Aging vision is prone to reduced dark adaptation, increased glare, and difficulty distinguishing bluish/yellowish colors

  • Presbycusis begins in the high-frequency range and is accompanied by the Recruitment Phenomenon

  • Reduced thirst and temperature/pain sensation increase the risk of asymptomatic dehydration and low-temperature burns
WordMeaning
Senile cataract
Dark adaptation
Presbycusis (high-frequency hearing loss)
Recruitment phenomenon

Age-Related Changes in Physical Functions (Respiratory, Circulatory, Digestive, Renal, etc.)

General characteristics of physiological aging include decreased reserve capacity, decreased adaptability to environmental changes, decreased ability to maintain homeostasis, and large individual differences.

In the respiratory system, decreased alveolar elasticity and respiratory muscle strength reduce Vital Capacity and Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1%), whereas Residual Volume (air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation) increases.

In the circulatory system, arteriosclerosis reduces blood vessel wall elasticity and increases peripheral vascular resistance, elevating systolic blood pressure and widening Pulse Pressure (the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure).

In the digestive system, saliva secretion, gastric juice secretion, and intestinal peristalsis decrease, making gastroesophageal reflux disease (from relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter) and atonic constipation more likely.

In the kidneys, renal blood flow, Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR), and urine concentrating ability decline, increasing Nocturia (frequent nighttime urination) and delaying drug excretion, which makes adverse drug reactions more likely.

Key points


  • With aging, vital capacity decreases while Residual Volume remaining in the lungs increases

  • Arteriosclerosis elevates systolic blood pressure and widens Pulse Pressure

  • Declining renal and hepatic function makes excessive drug effects and side effects more likely
WordMeaning
Homeostasis
Increase in residual volume
Widening of pulse pressure
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

Understanding and Preventing Frailty, Sarcopenia, and Locomotive Syndrome

Frailty refers to the intermediate stage between good health and the need for long-term care, in which physical and mental vitality (muscle strength, cognitive function, social connections, etc.) declines with aging.

The most important characteristic of frailty is Reversibility—meaning an individual can return to a healthy state through appropriate interventions such as proper nutrition, exercise, and social participation.

Frailty involves an interconnected cycle of three dimensions: Physical Frailty (weight loss, slower walking speed), Mental/Psychological Frailty (depression, mild cognitive decline), and Social Frailty (living alone, isolation, going out less).

At the core of physical frailty is Sarcopenia, a condition characterized by age-, malnutrition-, or inactivity-related loss of skeletal muscle mass accompanied by decreased grip strength (muscle strength) or walking speed (physical function).

Meanwhile, Locomotive Syndrome refers to reduced mobility (standing and walking) caused by musculoskeletal disorders such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, or sarcopenia, for which protein intake and regular exercise are key preventive measures.

Understanding and Preventing Frailty, Sarcopenia, and Locomotive Syndrome

Key points


  • Frailty is the intermediate stage between health and care dependency and has Reversibility with proper support

  • Frailty encompasses 3 dimensions: Physical, Mental/Psychological, and Social Frailty

  • Sarcopenia is loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength; Locomotive Syndrome is reduced mobility from musculoskeletal disorders
WordMeaning
Frailty
Reversibility
Sarcopenia
Locomotive syndrome

Characteristics of Diseases in Old Age and Major Conditions (Stroke, Heart Disease, Diabetes)

Diseases in older adults are characterized by multimorbidity (having multiple chronic diseases simultaneously), atypical symptoms (painless myocardial infarction, pneumonia without fever), susceptibility to fluid/electrolyte imbalances (dehydration), and adverse drug events from Polypharmacy.

Cerebrovascular disease (stroke) is divided into Cerebral Infarction caused by blocked brain vessels (atherothrombotic, cardioembolic, and lacunar infarction) and intracranial hemorrhage caused by ruptured vessels, including Cerebral Hemorrhage (often hypertensive) and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (sudden severe headache from a ruptured cerebral aneurysm).

Among ischemic heart diseases, Angina Pectoris involves temporary chest pain lasting a few to 15 minutes due to coronary artery narrowing and responds to nitroglycerin, whereas Myocardial Infarction involves myocardial necrosis from coronary occlusion with severe chest pain lasting 30 minutes or more.

In Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, which is common in older adults, chronic hyperglycemia leads to the progression of the Three Major Complications (diabetic retinopathy, diabetic nephropathy, and diabetic neuropathy) as well as arteriosclerosis.

When older adults taking antidiabetic drugs or insulin eat less or exercise more than usual, Hypoglycemic Symptoms (cold sweats, palpitations, hand tremors, impaired consciousness) can occur, requiring prompt glucose administration and medical coordination.

Key points


  • Geriatric diseases feature multimorbidity, atypical symptoms, and side effects from Polypharmacy

  • Angina pectoris is transient ischemia (a few to 15 min, nitroglycerin effective); myocardial infarction is necrosis (30+ min)

  • The 3 major diabetic complications are retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy; watch carefully for hypoglycemia
WordMeaning
Polypharmacy
Cardioembolic stroke
Ischemic heart disease
Three major complications of diabetes

Prevention and Care of Falls, Fractures, Dehydration, and Edema in Old Age

Older adults are prone to falls and fractures due to declining muscle strength, balance, and vision as well as osteoporosis, making falls/fractures a leading cause of needing long-term care alongside dementia, stroke, and frailty.

The Four Most Common Fracture Sites when older adults fall are the Femoral Neck (near the hip joint), Vertebral Body (compression fracture of the spine), Distal Radius (wrist), and Proximal Humerus (shoulder).

Older adults also easily develop Dehydration due to reduced muscle mass that stores body water (total body water drops from ~60% in adults to ~50–55% in older adults), blunted thirst sensation, and voluntary fluid restriction to avoid toilet trips.

As dehydration progresses, dryness of the oral mucosa, tongue, and axilla (armpit), decreased skin turgor, concentrated urine, low-grade fever, and delirium appear, making frequent fluid and electrolyte replenishment essential.

Furthermore, heart failure, renal failure, hypoalbuminemia, prolonged sitting, or reduced movement on a paralyzed side can cause fluid accumulation in interstitial spaces known as Edema (swelling), requiring leg elevation and medical coordination according to the underlying cause.

Key points


  • The 4 major fracture sites in older adults are the femoral neck, vertebral body, distal radius, and proximal humerus

  • Older adults are prone to dehydration due to decreased muscle mass (~50–55% body water) and blunted thirst

  • In dehydration, watch for dry axillae/oral cavity, decreased skin turgor, and delirium
WordMeaning
Femoral neck fracture
Distal radius fracture
Skin turgor
Edema (swelling)

Official references