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Understanding Disabilities

National Exam for Certified Care Workers 介護福祉士 · 介護福祉士国家試験(筆記) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

International Classification of Functioning (ICF), Philosophy of Disability, and Reasonable Accommodation

The International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps (ICIDH), published by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1980, viewed disability as a one-way negative progression (medical model): Disease -> Impairment -> Disability -> Handicap.

In contrast, the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), adopted in 2001, introduced a positive perspective showing the whole picture of living, modeling bidirectional interactions among six components: Health Condition, Functioning (Body Functions & Structures / Activities / Participation), and Contextual Factors (Environmental Factors / Personal Factors).

In the history of disability welfare, key milestones include Normalization proposed by Bank-Mikkelsen in Denmark in 1959, the Independent Living (IL) Movement started by Ed Roberts in the US in the 1970s, and the 1981 International Year of Disabled Persons theme Full Participation and Equality.

The 2006 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities championed the slogan Nothing About Us Without Us and established the Social Model of disability, which views disability not as an individual defect but as arising from interaction with social barriers.

Under Japan's Act for Eliminating Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities, following the April 2024 (Reiwa 6) amendment enforcement, the Provision of Reasonable Accommodation (within limits not imposing an undue burden) was strengthened from an obligation to endeavor to a Legal Obligation for Private Businesses as well as administrative agencies.

International Classification of Functioning (ICF), Philosophy of Disability, and Reasonable Accommodation

Key points


  • ICF captures bidirectional interactions among Body Functions & Structures (biological), Activities (daily life), Participation (social), and Environmental/Personal Factors

  • Ed Roberts's Independent Living (IL) Movement showed that independence means making one's own decisions even while receiving care assistance

  • Since April 2024, under the amended Disability Discrimination Elimination Act, providing reasonable accommodation is a legal obligation for private businesses too
WordMeaning
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF)
Independent Living (IL) Movement
Social Model of Disability
Mandatory Reasonable Accommodation

Psychological Process of Disability Acceptance, Empowerment, and Strengths Perspective

Regarding the psychological process by which a person with an acquired disability comes to accept their disability, rehabilitation physician Satoshi Ueda proposed a five-stage Stage Theory of Disability Acceptance.

The five stages are: (1) Shock Stage (physical and mental numbness) -> (2) Denial Stage (refusing to acknowledge the disability and believing it will be cured) -> (3) Confusion Stage (facing the reality of non-recovery and falling into anger or depression) -> (4) Effort Toward Resolution Stage (beginning positive efforts) -> (5) Acceptance Stage (building new values).

Disability acceptance is not resignation or surrender, but a Transformation of Values (re-recognizing one's worth with a disability), and it progresses not just linearly but while wavering back and forth.

For users in the confusion or denial stages, care workers avoid easy encouragement or persuasion, empathetically accompanying their suffering and conflict while maintaining a safe and secure environment.

In support, rather than focusing only on what cannot be done (deficits), emphasis is placed on the Strengths Perspective (focusing on the person's strengths, preferences, and environmental resources) and Empowerment (drawing out inherent potential).

Key points


  • Satoshi Ueda's 5 stages of disability acceptance: Shock -> Denial -> Confusion -> Effort Toward Resolution -> Acceptance

  • Disability acceptance is a Transformation of Values rather than giving up; empathetically accompany emotional fluctuations

  • The Strengths Perspective (focusing on strengths and potential) and Empowerment form the foundation of support
WordMeaning
Satoshi Ueda's 5 Stages of Disability Acceptance
Transformation of values
Strengths perspective
Empowerment

Medical Features and Support for Visual, Hearing/Speech, and Physical Disabilities

Representative causes of Visual Impairment include Glaucoma (narrowing of the visual field due to elevated intraocular pressure, etc.—the #1 cause of acquired blindness in Japan), Retinitis Pigmentosa (a hereditary disease causing night blindness and concentric visual field constriction/ring scotoma), and Diabetic Retinopathy.

Hearing Impairment is divided into Conductive Hearing Loss (outer to middle ear disorder; amplifying sound with a hearing aid is effective), Sensorineural Hearing Loss (inner ear / cochlea to auditory nerve/brain disorder; sound distorts and speech discrimination drops), and Mixed Hearing Loss, supported via sign language, written communication, summary note-taking, and hearing dogs.

Among Physical Disabilities, Spinal Cord Injury causes motor and sensory paralysis, bladder/rectal dysfunction, and autonomic dysfunction (thermoregulation impairment, orthostatic hypotension) below the lesion level: Cervical cord injury causes Tetraplegia (quadriplegia), while thoracic or lumbar cord injury causes Paraplegia of both lower limbs.

In spinal cord injury (especially at or above T6), strict attention must be paid to Autonomic Dysreflexia (paroxysmal severe hypertension, headache, sweating, and bradycardia triggered by stimuli such as a full bladder) and severe Pressure Ulcers due to sensory loss.

Cerebral Palsy (due to perinatal brain lesions) includes the Spastic Type (increased muscle tone, most common) and the Athetoid Type (involuntary movements, prone to secondary cervical spondylotic myelopathy), requiring comfortable positioning that relieves tension.

Key points


  • Glaucoma is the #1 cause of acquired blindness in Japan; Retinitis Pigmentosa features night blindness and concentric visual field constriction

  • Cervical cord injury causes tetraplegia and thoracic/lumbar injury causes paraplegia; watch for pressure ulcers, thermoregulation issues, and autonomic dysreflexia

  • Cerebral palsy includes spastic and athetoid types, requiring prevention of secondary disabilities such as cervical myelopathy
WordMeaning
Retinitis pigmentosa (night blindness, visual field constriction)
Sensorineural hearing loss and Conductive hearing loss
Spinal cord injury (tetraplegia, paraplegia)
Cerebral palsy (spastic type, athetoid type)

Understanding Intractable Neurological Diseases (ALS, Parkinson's, Spinocerebellar Degeneration, Muscular Dystrophy)

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a designated intractable disease in which only motor neurons (upper and lower motor neurons) selectively degenerate, causing progressive systemic muscle atrophy and weakness, bulbar palsy (dysarthria, dysphagia), and respiratory muscle paralysis.

In ALS, the Four Negative Signs (functions preserved until the end) are critically important: (1) Ocular movements (communication possible via blinking or eye-tracking devices), (2) Bladder and rectal function, (3) Sensory nerves (pain and sensation remain normal), and (4) Resistance to pressure ulcers (plus clear consciousness and intelligence).

Parkinson's Disease arises from loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the midbrain and presents with Four Major Motor Symptoms: (1) Resting tremor, (2) Muscle rigidity (cogwheel rigidity), (3) Akinesia/Bradykinesia (masked facies, soft voice), and (4) Postural reflex disturbance (stooped posture, shuffling gait, freezing of gait, festination).

Parkinson's severity is assessed by the Hoehn and Yahr Scale (Stages I–V: postural instability appears at Stage III); care addresses the Wearing-Off Phenomenon (shortened duration of L-dopa effect), constipation, and orthostatic hypotension, and uses floor tape visual cues for freezing of gait.

Other representative intractable diseases include Spinocerebellar Degeneration (characterized primarily by cerebellar Ataxia such as unsteady gait and slurred speech) and Muscular Dystrophy (progressive muscle weakness from genetic necrosis/degeneration of skeletal muscle fibers, such as Duchenne and Becker types).

Understanding Intractable Neurological Diseases (ALS, Parkinson's, Spinocerebellar Degeneration, Muscular Dystrophy)

Key points


  • The 4 Negative Signs (preserved functions) of ALS are ocular movement, bladder/rectal function, sensation, and rarity of pressure ulcers

  • The 4 cardinal symptoms of Parkinson's are resting tremor, rigidity, akinesia/bradykinesia, and postural reflex disturbance; watch for wearing-off

  • Spinocerebellar degeneration features ataxia, while muscular dystrophy features progressive muscle weakness from muscle fiber degeneration
WordMeaning
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS and 4 negative signs)
Parkinson's disease (Hoehn and Yahr scale)
Wearing-off phenomenon and Freezing of gait
Spinocerebellar degeneration and Muscular dystrophy

Internal Disabilities (Heart, Kidney, Respiratory, Stoma, etc.) and Intractable Digestive Diseases

Internal Disabilities under the Act on Welfare of Physically Disabled Persons comprise seven types: cardiac, renal, respiratory, bladder or rectal, small intestine, HIV-induced immune, and liver functional impairments.

Because internal disabilities are invisible from the outside, individuals often suffer from lack of public understanding; care requires precautions for cardiac pacemaker users and strict fire safety (no open flames, keep >2m away) for Home Oxygen Therapy (HOT) users with COPD.

For individuals with chronic renal failure undergoing Hemodialysis (3 times/week, ~4 hours/session), staff must avoid blood pressure measurement, wristwatches, heavy loads, or compression on the Shunt (arteriovenous fistula) arm, and observe restrictions on water, salt, potassium (raw vegetables/fruits), and phosphorus.

An artificial anus (colostomy, ileostomy) or artificial bladder (urostomy) surgically created on the abdominal wall for colorectal or bladder cancer is called a Stoma; because a stoma lacks sphincter muscles and pain sensation, it is managed with a pouch while monitoring peristomal skin irritation.

Stool consistency differs by stoma site: an ileostomy or ascending colostomy produces watery to muddy stool (requiring caution against skin erosion from digestive enzymes), whereas a descending or sigmoid colostomy produces normal formed stool.

Key points


  • There are 7 types of internal disabilities (heart, kidney, respiratory, bladder/rectal, small intestine, HIV immune, liver), which are not externally visible

  • For hemodialysis patients, prohibit compression/BP measurement on the shunt arm and restrict water, salt, potassium, and phosphorus

  • A stoma at the ileum/ascending colon outputs watery-to-muddy stool, while a sigmoid colostomy outputs solid formed stool
WordMeaning
Internal disabilities (7 types)
Home Oxygen Therapy (HOT - strictly no open flames)
Hemodialysis and Shunt management
Stoma (colostomy, ileostomy, urostomy)

Major Symptoms of Higher Brain Dysfunction (Attention, Executive, Unilateral Spatial Neglect, etc.) and Care

Higher Brain Dysfunction refers to residual cognitive impairments in memory, attention, executive function, or social behavior resulting from brain damage after cerebrovascular disease (cerebral infarction, hemorrhage) or traumatic brain injury from traffic accidents.

The four major symptoms begin with: (1) Memory Impairment (forgetting where items were placed or appointments—compensated with notebooks and alarms) and (2) Attention Disorder (easily distracted, unable to do two things at once—convey one thing at a time in a quiet environment).

They also include: (3) Executive Dysfunction (inability to plan and act in sequence—provide step-by-step manuals and checklists) and (4) Social Behavior Disorder (difficulty controlling emotions, irritability, or decreased motivation).

In Left Unilateral Spatial Neglect, commonly caused by right cerebral hemisphere (parietal lobe) damage, the person cannot recognize the left half of space despite intact eyesight, leaving food on the left side of the tray or bumping their left shoulder into walls.

For left unilateral spatial neglect, approach from the easily recognized right side, rotate the meal tray, or verbally cue the person to look left. For Dressing Apraxia (inability to orient sleeves despite no paralysis), support by placing color markers on top/bottom and inside/outside of clothes.

Key points


  • The 4 major symptoms of higher brain dysfunction are Memory Impairment, Attention Disorder, Executive Dysfunction, and Social Behavior Disorder

  • In Left Unilateral Spatial Neglect (from right brain damage), watch for overlooked food on the left and collisions with obstacles

  • In Dressing Apraxia, the person loses track of top/bottom and front/back of clothing, so attach colored marks to collars and give verbal cues
WordMeaning
Higher brain dysfunction
Attention disorder and Social behavior disorder
Left unilateral spatial neglect
Dressing apraxia and Ideational apraxia

Understanding Intellectual, Developmental (ASD, ADHD, LD), and Psychiatric Disabilities

Intellectual Disability manifests during the Developmental Period (generally under age 18) with both subaverage intellectual functioning (IQ generally below 70) and Difficulties in Adaptive Behavior in daily and social life; prefectural governors issue a Rehabilitation (Ryoiku) Handbook.

Under the Act on Support for Persons with Developmental Disabilities, developmental disabilities include: (1) Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), characterized by difficulties in social interaction and communication, strong restricted/repetitive patterns, and sensory hypersensitivity.

Because individuals with ASD easily experience severe anxiety or panic from vague verbal instructions or sudden schedule changes, support uses Visual Structuring (such as the TEACCH program) with photos, picture cards, and written schedules to provide predictability.

Developmental disabilities further include: (2) Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD, characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity) and (3) Learning Disorders (LD / Specific Learning Disorder, where overall intelligence is normal but specific skills like reading, writing, or calculation are impaired).

In Schizophrenia, a representative Psychiatric Disability, acute phases feature Positive Symptoms (auditory hallucinations, delusions) and chronic/recovery phases feature Negative Symptoms (blunted affect, avolition, social withdrawal), supported through medication adherence and community life support (Mental Disability Health and Welfare Handbook).

Key points


  • Intellectual disability arises during the developmental period (<18 years) and requires support for both intellectual function and adaptive behavior

  • For ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder), Visual Structuring with picture cards/schedules and concrete, affirmative phrasing are effective

  • Schizophrenia involves Positive Symptoms (hallucinations, delusions) and Negative Symptoms (avolition, emotional blunting)
WordMeaning
Intellectual disability (Rehabilitation/Ryoiku Handbook)
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD and visual structuring)
ADHD and Learning Disorders (LD)
Schizophrenia (positive symptoms and negative symptoms)

Community Living Support System, Prosthetics/Orthotics, and Family Support (Siblings, etc.)

When using disability welfare services under the Comprehensive Support for Persons with Disabilities Act, a Consultation Support Specialist at a designated consultation support office creates a Service Utilization Plan based on the person's wishes and assessment.

At each welfare service provider (living care, continuous employment support, group home, etc.), a Service Management Representative creates an Individual Support Plan aligned with the Service Utilization Plan and conducts periodic monitoring.

Assistive equipment is divided into Prosthetics and Orthotics (artificial limbs, braces, wheelchairs, electric wheelchairs, walkers, white canes, hearing aids, communication devices for severely disabled persons) and Daily Living Aids (special beds, stoma appliances, braille devices, etc.) provided under municipal community life support projects.

When fabricating and fitting Self-Help Devices (such as thick-handled spoons, sock aids, or button aids), it is appropriate to collaborate with an Occupational Therapist (OT), the specialist in applied activity training.

In family support, care addresses the 8050 Problem (aging parents in their 80s caring for children in their 50s), preparation for After Parents Pass Away, and the feelings of Siblings of Persons with Disabilities (Kyodai-ji: young carer issues and anxiety over future care burdens), connecting families to short-stay respite and community transition support.

Key points


  • A Consultation Support Specialist creates the Service Utilization Plan; the provider's Service Management Representative creates the Individual Support Plan

  • Distinguish Prosthetics/Orthotics (limbs, braces, wheelchairs, hearing aids), Daily Living Aids, and Self-Help Devices (fitted with an OT)

  • Family support must address respite care, preparation for After Parents Pass Away, and support for Siblings (Kyodai-ji)
WordMeaning
Consultation Support Specialist (Service Utilization Plan)
Service Management Representative (Individual Support Plan)
Prosthetics/Orthotics and Daily Living Aids
Self-help devices (Occupational Therapist: OT)

Understanding Disabilities

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