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Electrical & Mechanical Calculations, Materials, Fuels & Lubricants, and Units

Automobile Maintenance (SSW 2) · 自動車整備分野(2号) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Electrical Calculations (Ohm's Law, Series & Parallel Combined Resistance, Electric Power)

'Ohm's law', the foundation of electrical circuits, is expressed as Current I (A) = Voltage V (V) ÷ Resistance R (Ω), Voltage V = Current I × Resistance R, and Resistance R = Voltage V ÷ Current I.

In a 'series connection' where multiple resistors are connected along a single path, the current flowing through each resistor is equal, and the combined resistance R of the entire circuit is the sum of the individual resistances: 'R = R₁ + R₂ + R₃'.

Conversely, in a 'parallel connection' where multiple resistors are connected across branches, the voltage across each resistor equals the power supply voltage V, and the reciprocal of the combined resistance R is given by '1/R = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃'.

In particular, for a 'circuit with n resistors of equal resistance r (Ω) connected in parallel'—which appears frequently on the Type 2 written exam—the combined resistance R is easily found by 'R = r ÷ n (resistance of one resistor ÷ number of resistors)', and the total circuit current I is 'I = V ÷ R' (or the sum of the branch currents).

Furthermore, consumed 'electric power P (W: watts)' is calculated as 'Power P = Voltage V × Current I', so the current flowing through a bulb or heater can be found from 'Current I = Power P ÷ Voltage V'.

Electrical Calculations (Ohm's Law, Series & Parallel Combined Resistance, Electric Power)

Key points


  • Ohm's law: Current I = Voltage V ÷ Resistance R; series combined resistance R = R₁ + R₂ + R₃.

  • When n resistors of equal resistance r are connected in 'parallel', the combined resistance is 'R = r ÷ n'.

  • Electric power P (W) = Voltage V (V) × Current I (A), and current I = P ÷ V.

  • Example: A circuit with three 6Ω resistors (R₁, R₂, R₃) connected in parallel to a 12V power supply → Combined resistance R = 6 ÷ 3 = 2Ω; total circuit current I = 12 ÷ 2 = 6A

  • Example: Current I and resistance R when a 60W headlamp is connected to a 12V circuit → I = 60 ÷ 12 = 5A, R = 12 ÷ 5 = 2.4Ω
WordMeaning
Ohm's law (V = I × R)
series connection and parallel connection
combined resistance (Ω)
power consumption (P = V × I)

Mechanical Calculations (Gear Ratio, Total Displacement, Compression Ratio, Spring Constant)

When two gears mesh, the 'gear ratio (reduction ratio)' is found by 'Number of teeth on driven gear ÷ Number of teeth on drive gear'; output rotational speed equals 'Input speed ÷ Gear ratio', and output torque equals 'Input torque × Gear ratio'.

An engine's 'stroke volume (displacement per cylinder) Vh', where cylinder bore is D and piston stroke is S, is calculated as Cross-sectional area × Stroke: 'Vh = (π ÷ 4) × D² × S'; multiplying this by the number of cylinders gives 'total engine displacement'.

Furthermore, an engine's 'compression ratio (ε)' is found by dividing total cylinder volume at bottom dead center (stroke volume Vh + combustion chamber volume Vc) by combustion chamber volume Vc at top dead center: 'Compression ratio = (Vh + Vc) ÷ Vc'.

The 'moment of force (torque T)' that rotates a shaft or bolt is expressed as 'Applied force F (N) × Perpendicular distance from center of rotation (lever arm length) L (m)', with the unit 'N・m'.

Moreover, by Hooke's law, the force required to extend or compress a spring by 1 mm—the 'spring constant k (N/mm)'—is calculated as 'Load F (N) ÷ Deflection (extension or compression) x (mm)'.

Key points


  • Gear ratio = Driven gear teeth ÷ Drive gear teeth (Output torque = Input torque × Gear ratio).

  • Compression ratio = (Stroke volume + Combustion chamber volume) ÷ Combustion chamber volume.

  • Torque (N・m) = Force (N) × Lever arm length (m); Spring constant (N/mm) = Load (N) ÷ Deflection (mm).

  • Example: When drive gear teeth = 20, driven gear teeth = 50, and input torque = 100N・m → Gear ratio = 50 ÷ 20 = 2.5; Output torque = 100 × 2.5 = 250N・m

  • Example: Compression ratio of an engine with a single-cylinder stroke volume of 450cm³ and combustion chamber volume of 50cm³ → (450 + 50) ÷ 50 = 10.0
WordMeaning
gear ratio (driven teeth ÷ drive teeth)
stroke volume and total displacement
compression ratio and combustion chamber volume
moment of force (torque) and spring constant

Engine Oil Additives and Properties of Fuels and Lubricants

Engine oil blends various additives into base oil. Among them, a 'detergent-dispersant' finely disperses combustion soot and oil oxidation products throughout the oil to prevent them from depositing and adhering onto metal surfaces as sludge.

An 'oiliness improver (friction modifier)' forms a strong adsorbed film (oil film) on metal surfaces under boundary lubrication conditions such as heavy loads, preventing wear and seizure caused by direct metal-to-metal contact.

A 'pour-point depressant' is an additive that 'inhibits (prevents) wax (paraffin) components in the oil from crystallizing and solidifying at low temperatures', ensuring oil fluidity even in cold weather (statements claiming it promotes crystallization are incorrect).

Additionally, a 'viscosity index improver' is an additive that reduces oil viscosity changes caused by temperature variations, suppressing viscosity drop at high temperatures as well as viscosity increase at low temperatures.

Regarding fuel properties, a higher 'octane number' in gasoline means greater resistance to self-ignition and 'higher anti-knock performance', whereas a higher 'cetane number' in diesel fuel means easier self-ignition and 'better ignitability (less diesel knock)'.

Key points


  • A pour-point depressant 'inhibits (prevents)' wax components in oil from crystallizing at low temperatures to maintain fluidity ('promotes' is false).

  • Detergent-dispersants disperse soot and oxidation products to prevent sludge deposits, while oiliness improvers form a strong oil film on metal surfaces.

  • Viscosity index improvers minimize viscosity changes across temperature changes. Gasoline is rated by octane number, and diesel fuel by cetane number.
WordMeaning
detergent-dispersant and oiliness improver
pour-point depressant (inhibition of crystallization)
viscosity index improver
octane number (gasoline) and cetane number (diesel fuel)

Metallic Materials (Carbon Steel, Cast Iron), Non-Metallic Materials, and Paint Components

Among alloys of iron and carbon, those with a carbon content of approx. 0.02% to 2.0% are called 'carbon steel'; 'hard steel (0.3% carbon or more)' has a 'higher carbon content' than 'soft steel (less than 0.3% carbon)' (statements claiming hard steel has less carbon are incorrect). Higher carbon content increases hardness and tensile strength, but reduces elongation and toughness.

Among 'cast irons' with carbon content exceeding 2.0% (approx. 2.0%–4.5%), 'ordinary cast iron (gray cast iron)' excels in castability and wear resistance and is used for cylinder blocks, flywheels, and brake drums.

Ordinary cast iron to which 'chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), etc. are added' to enhance strength and wear resistance is called 'alloy cast iron', and is used for camshafts and cylinder liners.

Conversely, 'spheroidal graphite cast iron (ductile cast iron)' is made by 'adding magnesium (Mg) or cerium (Ce)' to molten cast iron to spheroidize flaky graphite, giving it strength and toughness close to steel for use in crankshafts and diff cases (claiming chromium and nickel are added to spheroidize graphite is incorrect).

Regarding the 'four components of automotive paint': (1) 'Resin' is the main component that binds pigment particles and gives the paint film gloss and hardness; (2) 'Pigment' is a powder insoluble in water or solvent that provides color; (3) 'Solvent' is a liquid that dissolves resin to make painting easier; and (4) 'Additives' are auxiliary components that improve painting workability and film stability.

Key points


  • Among carbon steels, 'hard steel' has a 'higher' carbon content than 'soft steel', making it harder with greater tensile strength.

  • Cast iron with added chromium, molybdenum, and nickel is 'alloy cast iron', while 'spheroidal graphite cast iron' has added 'magnesium (Mg)' to spheroidize graphite.

  • In paint components, 'resin' binds pigment and provides gloss and hardness, while 'additives' improve workability and paint film stability.
WordMeaning
carbon steel (hard steel and soft steel)
ordinary cast iron and alloy cast iron (Cr, Mo, Ni)
spheroidal graphite cast iron (magnesium addition)
four paint components (resin, pigment, solvent, additive)

SI Units (International System of Units: Force, Torque, Work, Pressure, Power)

In the 'SI units (International System of Units)' used in automotive maintenance and exams, you must accurately memorize the correct pairing between every physical quantity and its unit symbol.

The unit of 'force, load, and gravity (weight)' is 'N (newton)', where 1 N is the force that gives a 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/s² (1 kgf in conventional units equals approx. 9.8 N).

The unit of 'moment of force' and shaft-turning 'torque' is 'N・m (newton-meter)', while the unit of 'work, energy, and heat quantity' is 'J (joule: 1 J = 1 N・m)'.

The unit of 'pressure' (force acting per unit area, such as tire inflation pressure or compression pressure) and internal material 'stress' is 'Pa (pascal = N/m²)', 'kPa (kilopascal)', or 'MPa (megapascal)' (options pairing MPa with moment of force are incorrect).

Additionally, the unit of 'power (work per second), engine output power, and electric power' is 'W (watt = J/s)' or 'kW (kilowatt)'; spring constant is expressed in 'N/mm'; and rotational speed is expressed in 'min⁻¹ (or s⁻¹)'.

Key points


  • Force, Load = 'N (newton)'; Moment of force, Torque = 'N・m (newton-meter)'.

  • Pressure, Stress = 'Pa, kPa, MPa (pascal)' (MPa is NOT the unit of moment of force).

  • Work, Energy, Heat = 'J (joule)'; Power, Output, Electric power = 'W, kW (watt)'.
WordMeaning
newton (N: force, load)
newton-meter (N・m: moment of force, torque)
pascal (Pa, kPa, MPa: pressure, stress)
joule (J: work, heat) and watt (W, kW: power)

High-Voltage Safety Operations for Hybrid (HV) and Electric Vehicles (EV)

Traction motors and inverters in hybrid vehicles (HVs) and electric vehicles (EVs) use high voltages of roughly 200V to 650V, and all wire harnesses and connectors of high-voltage circuits are standardized in 'orange' to distinguish them from 12V auxiliary circuits.

When inspecting or servicing high-voltage parts, you must wear 'electrical insulating gloves' to prevent electric shock accidents. Before use, always inflate the insulating gloves with air and roll them up to 'inspect for scratches, tears, or air leaks (pinholes)', and wear them together with leather protector gloves.

As the procedure for shutting off the high-voltage circuit, first turn the power switch OFF, store the smart key outside the vehicle out of radio range, and disconnect the negative (−) terminal of the 12V auxiliary battery.

Next, wearing insulating gloves, remove the 'service plug (safety plug)' of the high-voltage traction battery; the technician must carry the removed service plug in their own pocket (or lock it away) so another worker cannot accidentally reinstall it.

Even after pulling out the service plug, electric charge remains in the 'high-voltage capacitor' inside the inverter; therefore, 'wait for the manufacturer-specified time (e.g., 5 to 10 minutes or more)' until it discharges completely, and verify 0V across the high-voltage terminals with a circuit tester before starting work.

High-Voltage Safety Operations for Hybrid (HV) and Electric Vehicles (EV)

Key points


  • HV/EV high-voltage harnesses and connectors are identified by 'orange' color, and 'insulating gloves inspected for air leaks' must be worn during work.

  • When shutting off high voltage: after turning the power switch OFF and disconnecting the 12V negative terminal, remove the 'service plug' and keep it under the technician's own control.

  • After removing the service plug, 'wait the specified time (5–10 minutes or more)' for the inverter capacitor to discharge and verify 0V before touching.
WordMeaning
orange harness (high-voltage circuit)
electrical insulating gloves (air-leak inspection)
service plug
inverter capacitor discharge waiting time

Common Exam Points and How to Remember Them

The basic engineering, materials, and units section accounts for around 6 questions every year (around Questions 30 to 35) on the Type 2 written exam, making it a 'reliable scoring source where you can aim for full marks'.

For calculation problems, practice mental math for: 'n equal resistors of r in parallel = r ÷ n (e.g., three 6Ω resistors in parallel give 6 ÷ 3 = 2Ω; at 12V, current I = 12 ÷ 2 = 6A)' and 'Compression ratio = (Stroke volume + Combustion chamber volume) ÷ Combustion chamber volume'.

For additives and materials, the most frequent trap patterns are: 'Pour-point depressant = inhibits low-temp wax crystallization (promotes is false)', 'Hard steel = more carbon than soft steel', 'Spheroidal graphite cast iron = magnesium added (Cr/Ni is alloy cast iron)', 'Paint resin = binds pigment and gives gloss/hardness; additive = improves workability/stability'.

For SI units, review the matching table right up until the exam: 'Force/Load = N', 'Moment of force/Torque = N・m', 'Pressure/Stress = Pa, kPa, MPa', 'Work/Heat = J', 'Power/Electric power = W, kW'.

Key points


  • Parallel circuit: three 6Ω resistors in parallel give combined resistance = 6 ÷ 3 = 2Ω; with a 12V supply, total current = 12 ÷ 2 = 6A.

  • Oil additives: a pour-point depressant 'inhibits' wax crystallization at low temperatures ('promotes' is false).

  • Iron & steel materials: hard steel has 'more' carbon than soft steel. Spheroidal graphite cast iron has 'magnesium' added.

  • Paint & SI units: 'resin' gives gloss and hardness. MPa is the unit of 'pressure and stress', whereas moment of force is 'N・m'.
WordMeaning
parallel combined resistance (R = r ÷ n)
pour-point depressant (crystallization inhibition)
hard steel, alloy cast iron, and spheroidal graphite cast iron
SI units (N, N・m, Pa, J, W)

Electrical & Mechanical Calculations, Materials, Lubricants & Units

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