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Running, Steering, and Braking Systems (Chassis)

Automobile Maintenance (SSW 2) · 自動車整備分野(2号) · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Tire Rolling Resistance, Static Loaded Radius, Static Vertical Spring Constant, and Standing Wave

'Rolling resistance' generated as a tire rolls on the road surface is caused primarily by 'deformation from repeated compression and recovery (hysteresis loss)' of the tire contact patch; the lower the tire inflation pressure, the greater the deformation and the higher the rolling resistance.

'Static loaded radius' refers to the 'vertical distance from the road surface to the wheel axle center (wheel center)' when a tire inflated to specified pressure is stationary under a specified vertical load.

Furthermore, the 'static vertical spring constant' is the value expressing the 'vertical load per unit vertical deflection (1 mm)' in 'N/mm' (vertical load N ÷ deflection mm) when a vertical load is applied to the tire.

Regarding the static vertical spring constant of a tire, 'the smaller the value (the softer the spring), the more easily it absorbs road shocks and the better the ride comfort' (statements claiming a larger value gives better ride comfort are incorrect).

When driving at high speeds on underinflated tires, tread deformation behind the contact patch fails to recover in time and undulates in waves—a phenomenon called a 'standing wave'—causing rapid heat buildup and the danger of a tire burst.

Key points


  • Rolling resistance arises from 'deformation due to repeated compression and recovery' of the tire; static loaded radius is the 'vertical distance from the road surface to the axle center'.

  • For the static vertical spring constant (N/mm), a 'smaller' value provides better ride comfort, while higher inflation pressure increases the value.

  • Maintaining tire inflation pressure at the specified value (or slightly higher for highway driving) is effective in preventing the standing wave phenomenon.

  • Example: When applying a vertical load of 4,000N to a tire produces a vertical deflection of 20mm → Static vertical spring constant = 4,000 ÷ 20 = 200N/mm
WordMeaning
rolling resistance
static loaded radius
static vertical spring constant (N/mm)
standing wave phenomenon

Suspension Spring Characteristics (Metal Springs vs. Air Springs) and Shock Absorbers

Metal springs used in suspension systems (coil springs, leaf springs, torsion bars) have a constant spring rate even when load changes; therefore, when payload is light (such as when unladen), the 'natural frequency of the vehicle body becomes higher', making ride comfort stiffer (worse).

Conversely, 'air springs' used on large buses, trucks, and luxury passenger cars utilize the elasticity of compressed air and excel at absorbing fine, high-frequency vibrations.

In an air spring system, when payload increases, a 'leveling valve' operates to supply compressed air into the air chamber, 'keeping vehicle height constant at all times' while simultaneously 'automatically increasing the spring constant' via the rise in internal pressure.

Because the spring constant changes in proportion to load increases or decreases, the 'natural frequency of the body is kept nearly constant' from unladen to fully laden conditions, maintaining good ride comfort regardless of load.

Additionally, a 'shock absorber' quickly damps spring oscillations using the flow resistance (damping force) of oil passing through orifices, while a 'stabilizer (anti-roll bar)' suppresses body roll using torsional reaction force when the left and right wheels move in opposite vertical directions.

Key points


  • In an air spring, as load increases, the spring constant automatically becomes 'larger', keeping natural frequency and vehicle ride height constant.

  • Because metal springs have a fixed spring constant, the lighter the load (unladen), the higher the natural frequency and the worse the ride comfort.

  • A stabilizer experiences no torsion and does not act when both left and right wheels move up or down simultaneously by the same amount.
WordMeaning
air spring and leveling valve
natural frequency and spring constant
shock absorber (damping force)
stabilizer (roll suppression)

Electric Power Steering (EPS) and Hall-IC Torque Sensor

'Electric Power Steering (EPS)' is a system in which the EPS-ECU controls electric motor current according to the driver's steering torque and vehicle speed to assist steering effort—supplying a large current during stationary or low-speed steering and reducing current at high speeds to enhance steering stability.

In a 'Hall-IC torque sensor' that detects steering torque, the 'input shaft' on the steering wheel side and the 'output shaft' on the pinion gear side are connected via a thin 'torsion bar'.

Here, a 'multi-pole magnet is mounted on the input shaft', and a 'magnetic yoke (soft magnetic ring) that collects magnetic flux is mounted on the output shaft' (options that reverse these mounting positions are incorrect).

When the steering wheel is turned and the torsion bar twists, a relative rotational displacement occurs between the input shaft (multi-pole magnet) and the output shaft (yoke).

This displacement changes the magnetic flux density passing from the yoke through the magnetic collector to the 'Hall IC', allowing the Hall IC to detect 'both steering force (torque magnitude) and steering direction (left or right)' as voltage signals.

Electric Power Steering (EPS) and Hall-IC Torque Sensor

Key points


  • In a Hall-IC torque sensor, the 'multi-pole magnet is mounted on the input shaft' and the 'yoke is mounted on the output shaft'.

  • From magnetic flux changes caused by torsion bar twist, the sensor detects 'both steering force (magnitude) and steering direction (left/right)'.

  • Through vehicle-speed-sensitive control, motor current is increased at low speeds for light steering and decreased at high speeds for stable road feel.
WordMeaning
Electric Power Steering (EPS)
Hall-IC torque sensor
input shaft (multi-pole magnet)
output shaft (yoke) and torsion bar

Wheel Alignment (Camber, Caster, Kingpin Inclination, Toe-In) and Side Slip

'Wheel alignment' refers to the geometric arrangement of the wheels: 'positive camber' (where the top of the front wheels tilts outward when viewed from the front) and 'kingpin inclination' (where the top of the steering pivot axis tilts inward) reduce the kingpin offset (scrub radius) on the road surface to lighten steering effort.

Meanwhile, 'positive caster' (where the top of the kingpin axis tilts rearward when viewed from the side) creates caster trail, providing straight-line stability and steering wheel return force after cornering (self-aligning torque).

Viewed from above, the condition where the front distance (A) between the left and right front tires is narrower than the rear distance (B) is called 'toe-in (B − A)', which cancels out camber thrust (the tendency of positively cambered tires to roll outward) to prevent uneven wear and side slip.

The amount by which the front wheels slip sideways when the vehicle travels straight ahead is called 'side slip'; under the Road Transport Vehicle Safety Standards, when measured with a side-slip tester, it must be 'within 5 mm (inward or outward) per 1 m of travel'.

If toe-in becomes excessive while camber remains unchanged, the tires are dragged inward, causing featheredge wear where the 'outer' side of the tread wears in a feather-like pattern.

Wheel Alignment (Camber, Caster, Kingpin Inclination, Toe-In) and Side Slip

Key points


  • Toe-in is calculated as 'Rear distance B − Front distance A' between left and right wheels viewed from above, preventing outward side slip caused by camber.

  • Under the Safety Standards, the side slip of steered wheels must be 'within 5 mm (in or out) per 1 m of travel'.

  • Kingpin inclination and camber reduce kingpin offset to lighten steering effort, while caster improves straight-line stability and returnability.

  • Example: When rear center-to-center distance B of the front tires is 1,452mm and front center-to-center distance A is 1,449mm → Toe-in = 1,452 − 1,449 = 3mm

  • Example: When side slip measured over 1m of travel on a side-slip tester is IN 3.5mm → Meets the standard (within 5mm), so judged 'Good (Pass)'
WordMeaning
camber, caster, kingpin inclination
toe-in (B − A)
side slip amount (within 5 mm per 1 m of travel)
self-aligning torque

Braking Action, Stopping Distance Calculation, Brake Fluid, and Vapor Lock

An automotive hydraulic brake system transmits hydraulic pressure generated in the master cylinder to each wheel according to Pascal's principle, using friction from pads or linings to 'convert the kinetic energy of the moving vehicle into heat energy' to decelerate and stop the vehicle.

The 'stopping distance' from the moment the driver perceives danger until the vehicle comes to a complete halt equals the sum of the 'free-running (reaction) distance (reaction time × speed)' before the brakes begin to take effect and the 'braking distance' from when the brakes take effect until the vehicle stops.

When the coefficient of friction with the road surface is constant, free-running distance is proportional to travel speed, whereas 'braking distance increases in proportion to the square of travel speed' (for example, doubling speed quadruples braking distance).

Glycol-based brake fluid (such as DOT3 and DOT4) is 'hygroscopic (absorbs moisture from the atmosphere)'; the more moisture it absorbs, the lower its 'boiling point drops', requiring periodic replacement.

When descending a long grade and overusing the foot brake causes the brake fluid to boil and form vapor bubbles in the lines—so stepping on the pedal fails to transmit hydraulic pressure—it is called 'vapor lock', which must be distinguished from 'fade', where overheating of the friction material itself lowers its friction coefficient.

Key points


  • Brakes decelerate a vehicle by using friction to 'convert kinetic energy into heat energy'.

  • Stopping distance = Free-running distance + Braking distance, and braking distance is proportional to the 'square of travel speed'.

  • Brake fluid boiling point drops when it absorbs moisture; the loss of braking force due to boiling fluid forming vapor bubbles is called 'vapor lock'.

  • Example: When free-running distance is 15m and braking distance is 25m, stopping distance → 15 + 25 = 40m

  • Example: At 36km/h (10m/s) with a reaction time of 1.0s and braking distance of 8m → Free-running distance = 10 × 1.0 = 10m; Stopping distance = 10 + 8 = 18m
WordMeaning
kinetic energy and heat energy
stopping distance, free-running distance, and braking distance
vapor lock phenomenon and fade phenomenon
glycol-based brake fluid (hygroscopic property)

ABS (Anti-Lock Brake System) and Electronic Stability Control (ESC)

'ABS (Anti-lock Brake System)' monitors the rotational speed of each wheel during sudden braking or braking on slippery surfaces and controls wheel cylinder pressure through 'pressure decrease, hold, and increase' to prevent wheel lock, ensuring directional stability and steerability.

ABS is equipped with a 'fail-safe function': in the event an electrical fault occurs in the ABS system, it illuminates the ABS warning lamp, 'stops ABS control, and allows the brakes to operate normally as ordinary service brakes'.

Immediately after starting the engine and pulling away, the ABS-ECU performs an initial electrical check of the solenoid valves and pump motor, so 'the hydraulic unit may temporarily produce an operating sound', which is normal.

Note that if a completely discharged battery is jump-started with booster cables and the vehicle is driven immediately before charging is sufficient, the ABS warning lamp may illuminate due to low power supply voltage detection.

When reading diagnostic trouble codes via the blinking of the ABS warning lamp, if two or more trouble codes are stored, they are displayed in 'ascending order from the smallest code number' rather than in the chronological order in which they occurred.

Key points


  • The ABS fail-safe function 'stops ABS control and operates the brakes as normal service brakes' when an electrical fault occurs.

  • An operating sound may occur during the initial check after engine start, and the ABS warning lamp may light up due to low voltage immediately after jump-starting.

  • When multiple trouble codes are displayed by blinking the ABS warning lamp, they are output in 'order from the smallest code number' (claiming order of occurrence is incorrect).
WordMeaning
Anti-lock Brake System (ABS)
pressure decrease, hold, and increase control
initial check and fail-safe function
Electronic Stability Control (ESC)

Common Exam Points and How to Remember Them

In the chassis section (running, steering, braking) of the Type 2 written exam, five topics appear frequently: tire spring constant, air springs, EPS torque sensors, wheel alignment, and ABS.

For tires and suspension, memorize: 'Static vertical spring constant (N/mm) = smaller value means softer and better ride comfort', 'Static loaded radius = vertical distance from road surface to axle center', 'Air spring = as load increases, spring constant increases so natural frequency stays constant'.

For steering and alignment, lock in: 'Hall-IC torque sensor = multi-pole magnet on input shaft, yoke on output shaft (detects both force and direction)', 'Toe-in = B − A', 'Side slip safety standard = within 5 mm per 1 m of travel'.

For brakes and ABS: 'Stopping distance = Free-running distance + Braking distance (kinetic energy → heat energy)', 'On ABS fault = operates as normal brakes', 'ABS warning lamp blinking multiple codes = displayed in ascending order from smallest code number (order of occurrence is false)'.

Key points


  • Tires & suspension: A 'smaller' static vertical spring constant (N/mm) gives better ride comfort; air springs vary spring constant with load to keep natural frequency constant.

  • EPS torque sensor: 'Multi-pole magnet on input shaft' and 'yoke on output shaft' detect both steering force and direction.

  • Alignment & brakes: Side slip must be 'within 5 mm per 1 m of travel'; Stopping distance = Free-running distance + Braking distance.

  • ABS: reverts to normal brakes during a fault; multiple blinking trouble codes are displayed in 'order from the smallest code number'.
WordMeaning
static vertical spring constant and natural frequency
multi-pole magnet and yoke
side slip (within 5 mm)
ABS fail-safe and trouble code display order

Running Gear, Steering & Brakes

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