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Electrical Equipment (Battery, Starting, Charging, Ignition, and Lighting)

Automobile Maintenance · 自動車整備分野 · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Lead-Acid Battery Structure, Specific Gravity, and Handling

Automotive batteries use lead-acid storage batteries. Positive plates (lead dioxide, PbO2) and negative plates (spongy lead, Pb) are separated by separators and immersed in electrolyte (dilute sulfuric acid, H2SO4), producing an electromotive force of about 2 V per cell. A 12 V passenger car battery connects 6 cells in series.

As the battery discharges, both plates turn into lead sulfate (PbSO4) and the sulfuric acid in the electrolyte decreases, making the liquid closer to water and lowering its specific gravity. The specific gravity of a fully charged battery at the standard temperature of 20°C is 1.26 to 1.28. Because specific gravity changes by 0.0007 per 1°C, it is converted to 20°C using the formula S20 = St + 0.0007 × (t - 20).

When the electrolyte level drops due to natural evaporation, sulfuric acid does not evaporate, so you must refill with purified water (distilled water) up to the UPPER LEVEL line. Also, because flammable and explosive hydrogen gas is generated during charging, ensure good ventilation and strictly prohibit open flames.

When disconnecting cables from battery terminals, always disconnect the negative (-) terminal (ground side) first so that a wrench touching the metal vehicle body will not cause a short circuit. Conversely, when connecting cables, connect the positive (+) terminal first and the negative (-) terminal last.

Lead-Acid Battery Structure, Specific Gravity, and Handling

Key points


  • A 12 V battery consists of six 2 V cells in series, and its fully charged electrolyte specific gravity at 20°C is 1.26 to 1.28

  • Refill natural electrolyte loss with purified (distilled) water, and keep flames away during charging because explosive hydrogen gas is released

  • To prevent short circuits, disconnect the negative (-) terminal first when removing cables, and connect the positive (+) terminal first when installing

  • Example: When measured specific gravity St is 1.263 at an electrolyte temperature of 30°C, the 20°C converted specific gravity is S20 = 1.263 + 0.0007 × (30 - 20) = 1.263 + 0.007 = 1.270

  • Example: A battery rated at 40 Ah (ampere-hours) at a 5-hour rate can discharge a constant current of 40 ÷ 5 = 8 A for 5 hours
WordMeaning
Electrolyte (dilute sulfuric acid)
Purified water (distilled water)
Specific gravity
Hydrogen gas

Starting System (Starter) and Charging System (Alternator)

The starting system (starter) uses battery power to spin a DC motor and mesh its pinion gear with the flywheel ring gear to crank the engine. The magnetic switch performs two functions: pushing the pinion gear out to mesh and closing the main contacts to supply heavy current to the motor.

An overrunning clutch (one-way clutch) is built into the starter. Immediately after the engine starts, this clutch prevents the starter armature from being driven backward at excessive speed by the rapidly spinning flywheel ring gear, preventing armature damage.

The alternator (AC generator) of the charging system is driven by a belt from the engine crankshaft pulley. It consists of a spinning rotor (field coil) that creates a magnetic field and a stationary stator (stator coil) around it that generates three-phase alternating current (AC).

The three-phase AC generated in the stator coil is converted (rectified) into direct current (DC) by a built-in rectifier (diodes). Furthermore, an IC regulator controls the field current flowing to the rotor to keep the generated voltage within a constant specified range (about 14.0 to 14.5 V on 12 V vehicles) even when engine speed changes.

Starting System (Starter) and Charging System (Alternator)

Key points


  • The starter overrunning clutch prevents the armature from being back-driven and over-revved by the ring gear after the engine starts

  • The alternator creates a magnetic field with the rotor, generates three-phase AC in the stator coil, and rectifies it to DC using the rectifier (diodes)

  • The IC regulator adjusts rotor field current to maintain alternator output voltage at a constant specified level (about 14 to 14.5 V)
WordMeaning
Starter
Overrunning clutch (one-way clutch)
Alternator
Rectifier (diode)
IC regulator

Ignition System (Ignition Coil and Spark Plug)

The ignition system of a gasoline engine steps up the low 12 V battery voltage to a high voltage of about 10,000 to 30,000 V using an ignition coil, then discharges an electric spark across the electrodes of the spark plug to ignite the compressed air-fuel mixture.

Inside the ignition coil, a primary coil with relatively few turns and a secondary coil with tens to hundreds of times more turns are wound around an iron core. At the instant the igniter abruptly cuts off current in the primary coil, self-induction and mutual induction generate ultra-high voltage in the secondary coil.

The gap between the center electrode and ground electrode of a spark plug (plug gap) is typically about 0.8 to 1.1 mm. The degree to which a spark plug transfers heat from the combustion chamber to the cylinder head is called its heat range: a plug that dissipates heat easily is a cold type (high heat range), and one that retains heat is a hot type (low heat range).

If the plug tip temperature is too low, carbon builds up and causes fouling (misfire); if it is too high, the electrode overheats and causes pre-ignition. Also, as engine speed increases, ignition timing is advanced so that peak combustion pressure is reached just after Top Dead Center.

Key points


  • The ignition coil uses electromagnetic induction when primary coil current is interrupted to generate about 10,000 to 30,000 V in the secondary coil

  • Spark plug heat range indicates heat dissipation capacity: a fast-cooling plug is a cold type (high heat range) and a heat-retaining plug is a hot type (low heat range)

  • As engine speed increases, ignition timing must be advanced to allow sufficient crank angle for combustion
WordMeaning
Ignition coil
Spark plug
Heat range (cold type and hot type)
Ignition timing (advance and retard)

Electrical Fundamentals (Ohm's Law, Electric Power, and Combined Resistance)

In an electrical circuit, voltage V (volts), current I (amperes), and resistance R (ohms, Ω) obey Ohm's law: V = I × R (Voltage = Current × Resistance). Rearranging gives I = V ÷ R and R = V ÷ I, which form the basis for electrical troubleshooting and fuse selection.

The electric power P (watts, W) consumed by a bulb or motor per second is calculated by P = V × I (Power = Voltage × Current). For example, when a 60 W headlamp is connected to a 12 V power supply, the current flowing through it is I = 60 ÷ 12 = 5 A.

In a series connection where multiple resistors are connected along a single path, the current through each resistor is equal and the combined resistance R is the sum of the individual resistances (R = R1 + R2). Adding resistors in series increases total resistance and decreases current.

In a parallel connection where branches split, the voltage across each branch is equal, and the combined resistance of two parallel resistors is R = (R1 × R2) ÷ (R1 + R2). Automotive headlamps, tail lamps, and other loads are connected in parallel across the battery so that if one bulb burns out, the others stay lit.

Key points


  • Ohm's law is V = I × R, and power consumption is P(W) = V(V) × I(A)

  • Series combined resistance is R = R1 + R2, while parallel combined resistance is R = (R1 × R2) ÷ (R1 + R2); automotive lamps are wired in parallel

  • Example: When a 4 Ω lamp and a 2 Ω lamp are connected in series to a 12 V battery, combined resistance R = 4 + 2 = 6 Ω and circuit current I = 12 ÷ 6 = 2 A

  • Example: When 6 Ω and 3 Ω resistors are connected in parallel to a 12 V battery, combined resistance R = (6 × 3) ÷ (6 + 3) = 18 ÷ 9 = 2 Ω and total current I = 12 ÷ 2 = 6 A

  • Example: When two 60 W headlamps are lit in parallel on a 12 V circuit, total power P = 120 W and total current I = 120 ÷ 12 = 10 A
WordMeaning
Ohm's law
Power consumption
Series connection and parallel connection
Combined (equivalent) resistance

Body Ground (Earth) and the Roles of Fuses and Relays

Automotive wiring harnesses use a single-wire body ground system in which the battery negative (-) terminal and the negative side of electrical devices are connected to the metal vehicle body and engine block, using the body itself as the return path. This greatly reduces wire length and weight.

If a circuit shorts and excessive current flows, wire insulation can melt and cause a vehicle fire. To prevent this, fuses and fusible links (for high-current circuits) are placed on the power supply side so their internal metal element melts and opens the circuit when overcurrent flows.

When a fuse blows, first inspect and repair the cause of the overcurrent (such as a short circuit), then always replace the fuse with one of the exact same rated capacity (amperage). Blade fuses are color-coded by rating (for example, 10 A = red, 15 A = blue, 20 A = yellow). Using wire or a higher-capacity fuse is strictly prohibited as it can cause a fire.

Circuits that draw large currents—such as headlamps, horns, and electric cooling fans—use relays. Passing only a small current through the dashboard switch to energize the relay electromagnet allows heavy current to flow directly to the load through short, thick wires, preventing switch contact burning and voltage drop.

Body Ground (Earth) and the Roles of Fuses and Relays

Key points


  • Body ground (single-wire system) connects the negative side of the battery and electrical components to the metal vehicle body to simplify wiring

  • A fuse melts under overcurrent to protect wiring; if blown, repair the cause and replace it with a fuse of the exact same rated amperage

  • A relay uses a small switch current to open and close a high-current circuit, preventing switch contact wear and wiring voltage drop
WordMeaning
Body ground (body earth)
Fuse
Fusible link
Relay

Lighting, Warning Lamps, Wipers, and Windshield Washers

Automotive lighting equipment is strictly regulated by safety standards regarding color, mounting position, and brightness. Headlamps, clearance (position) lamps, backup (reversing) lamps, and license plate lamps are white.

Tail lamps and stop (brake) lamps mounted at the rear of the vehicle are red; when a stop lamp is combined with a tail lamp, its luminous intensity must be at least 5 times that of the tail lamp.

Turn signal lamps (winkers) and hazard warning lamps are amber (orange) and flash at a rate of 60 to 120 times per minute.

Instrument panel warning lights such as the oil pressure warning lamp, charge warning lamp, and brake warning lamp illuminate when the ignition switch is turned ON (engine stopped) for a bulb check, and go out once the engine starts and oil pressure and charging are normal.

The windshield wiper motor incorporates an auto-stop mechanism so that when the wiper switch is turned OFF, the blades do not stop mid-glass but automatically return to their parked position at the bottom edge of the windshield.

Operating wipers on a dry windshield scratches the glass and damages the rubber blades, so always spray washer fluid before running the wipers.

Key points


  • Lamp colors: headlamps, backup lamps, license plate lamps = white; tail and stop lamps = red; turn signals (60 to 120 flashes/min) = amber (orange)

  • Oil pressure and charge warning lamps turn ON when the ignition is switched ON (engine off) and turn OFF after the engine starts normally

  • The wiper motor has an auto-stop mechanism that returns the blades to the bottom park position when switched OFF
WordMeaning
Headlamp
Stop lamp (brake lamp)
Turn signal lamp (winker)
Auto-stop mechanism

Fan Belt (Accessory Drive Belt) and Electrical System Inspection

The fan belt (V-belt or V-ribbed belt) driven by the engine crankshaft pulley drives the alternator, water pump, and air conditioning compressor.

Inspect the belt surface for cracks, damage, or oil contamination, and press the center of the span between pulleys with your finger (about 98 N or 10 kgf of force) to check belt deflection (tension).

If the fan belt is too loose, it slips on the pulleys and makes a squealing noise, causing insufficient alternator charging (dead battery) and engine overheating due to reduced water pump speed. Conversely, if it is too tight, it causes premature damage to alternator and water pump bearings.

When disconnecting electrical connectors (couplers) for sensors or actuators, never pull on the wire harness to avoid breaking wires; always release the lock tab and grasp the connector housing itself to pull it apart.

Before servicing electronic control units (ECUs) or SRS airbags, turn the ignition switch OFF, disconnect the negative (-) battery terminal, and wait the specified time before starting work to prevent accidental deployment or short-circuit damage.

Key points


  • A loose fan belt slips and causes poor charging and overheating, whereas an overly tight belt damages alternator and water pump bearings

  • Check belt tension by measuring deflection when pressing the mid-span with specified force (about 98 N) or by using a belt tension gauge

  • When unplugging a connector, release the lock and pull by holding the connector body rather than pulling on the wires
WordMeaning
Fan belt (V-ribbed belt)
Deflection amount
Bearing
Connector (coupler)

Frequently Tested Points and Memory Tips

Battery questions appear on almost every exam. Memorize the 5 core rules: six 2 V cells in series = 12 V; fully charged specific gravity at 20°C = 1.26 to 1.28; refill fluid = purified water (dilute sulfuric acid is wrong); gas during charging = hydrogen gas (oxygen or CO is wrong); terminal order = remove negative (-) first, install positive (+) first.

For starters and alternators, match each part with its role: Overrunning clutch = prevents armature back-drive after starting; Stator coil = generates 3-phase AC; Rectifier (diodes) = rectifies AC to DC; IC regulator = keeps output voltage constant.

For calculation problems, use Ohm's law, the electric power formula, and the product-over-sum formula for parallel resistors. Remember that the combined resistance of a parallel circuit is always smaller than the smallest individual resistor.

If a fuse blows, any choice suggesting replacing it with a higher-capacity fuse or wrapping copper/steel wire around it is False. Always find and repair the fault and replace it with a fuse of the exact same rated capacity.

Key points


  • Battery: 1.26 to 1.28 specific gravity at 20°C / Refill with purified water / Hydrogen gas during charging / Disconnect negative (-) terminal first

  • Alternator: Rotor (magnetic field) → Stator (generates 3-phase AC) → Rectifier (converts to DC) → IC regulator (regulates voltage)

  • The starter overrunning clutch prevents the armature from being back-driven and over-revved after the engine starts

  • Master Ohm's law V = I × R, power P = V × I, and parallel resistance R = (R1 × R2) ÷ (R1 + R2)

  • When a fuse blows, repair the cause and replace with the exact same rated capacity (higher-rated fuses or wire are strictly prohibited)
WordMeaning
Short circuit
Blowing (melting) of a fuse
Rated capacity

Electrical (Battery, Starting, Charging, Ignition, Lights)

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