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Materials, Fuels, Lubricants, and Vehicle Body

Automobile Maintenance · 自動車整備分野 · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Metallic Materials (Ferrous Materials, Heat Treatment, and Non-Ferrous Metals)

Ferrous materials, which are used most extensively in automobiles, are alloys of iron (Fe) containing carbon (C).

Alloys with a carbon content of about 0.02~2.14% are called carbon steel, while those with about 2.14~6.67% carbon are called cast iron. In carbon steel, as the carbon content increases, hardness and tensile strength increase, but elongation and toughness (tenacity) decrease and weldability worsens.

Cast iron has a low melting point, is easy to cast into complex shapes, and excels in wear resistance and vibration absorption, so it is used for cylinder blocks, brake drums, and disc rotors.

Furthermore, alloy steels (special steels) made by adding chromium, molybdenum, or nickel to carbon steel are used for crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, suspension spring steel, and stainless steel exhaust pipes.

Heat treatments that alter the properties of steel include quenching (heating to a high temperature and rapidly cooling in water or oil to harden), tempering (reheating after quenching to remove brittleness and impart toughness), annealing (relieving internal strain and softening), and induction hardening / carburizing (hardening only the surface of gears and shafts).

Aluminum alloy, a non-ferrous metal, has a specific gravity of about 2.7—light at roughly 1/3 that of iron (about 7.8)—and features high thermal conductivity and heat dissipation, so it is widely used for pistons, cylinder heads, radiators, and aluminum wheels.

Key points


  • In carbon steel, a higher carbon content increases hardness and tensile strength, but reduces elongation and toughness

  • Quenching hardens steel by rapid cooling, whereas tempering reduces post-quenching brittleness and gives the steel toughness

  • Aluminum alloy has a specific gravity about 1/3 that of iron and excellent thermal conductivity (heat dissipation), so it is used for pistons, cylinder heads, and radiators
WordMeaning
Carbon steel and cast iron (Iron-carbon alloys classified by carbon percentage)
Quenching and tempering (Quenching hardens steel via rapid cooling; tempering restores toughness)
Toughness (tenacity) (Resistance of a material to fracturing when stressed or impacted)
Aluminum alloy (Lightweight metal (~1/3 the weight of iron) with high heat conductivity)

Non-Metallic Materials (Glass, Resin, Rubber) and Fuels (Gasoline, Diesel)

Safety glass is used for automobile window glass. For the front windshield, law mandates the use of laminated glass, which sandwiches a tough transparent plastic interlayer between two sheets of glass to prevent penetration and shattering and maintain visibility even if cracked by an impact.

On the other hand, door glass and rear glass mostly use tempered glass, which crumbles into fine blunt granules when broken to prevent severe injury.

Synthetic resins (plastics) include thermoplastic resins (such as polypropylene used for bumpers and interior parts) that soften when heated and harden when cooled, and thermosetting resins that harden permanently through a chemical reaction when heated. Additionally, oil-resistant and heat-resistant synthetic rubbers (such as nitrile rubber) are used for oil seals and hoses.

Gasoline fuel is highly volatile with an extremely low flash point of -40 degrees C or below, meaning it ignites immediately in the presence of an open flame even in sub-zero winter temperatures. Moreover, gasoline vapor is 3 to 4 times heavier than air and easily accumulates on workshop floors and at the bottom of pits, requiring strict precautions against explosions and fires caused by static electricity or electrical sparks.

Diesel fuel (light oil) has a higher flash point than gasoline (+45 degrees C or above), but its auto-ignition temperature (fire point) is lower than gasoline, and its ignitability is expressed by the cetane number. Because paraffin (wax) in diesel fuel solidifies white at low temperatures and clogs the fuel filter, cold-weather diesel fuel that resists freezing is used in cold regions.

Key points


  • Laminated glass is used for the front windshield so it does not scatter and maintains visibility when cracked, while tempered glass that breaks into small granules is used for door glass

  • Gasoline has an extremely low flash point (-40 degrees C or below) and its vapor is heavier than air, so it easily collects in floor pits

  • Because wax precipitates in diesel fuel at low temperatures and clogs the fuel filter, cold-region diesel fuel with a low pour point is used in winter and cold climates
WordMeaning
Laminated glass and tempered glass (Windshields must use laminated glass; side/rear windows use tempered glass)
Thermoplastic resin and thermosetting resin (Thermoplastics soften on heating; thermosets cure permanently)
Flash point and auto-ignition point (Gasoline has a very low flash point (below -40 degrees C))
Oil-resistant rubber (Synthetic rubber used for seals and hoses exposed to oil and fuel)

Functions and Standards of Engine Oil, Gear Oil, and Grease

Engine oil performs 5 major functions. (1) Lubrication (friction reduction): prevents direct metal-to-metal contact to reduce friction and wear; (2) Cooling: absorbs and carries away combustion heat and friction heat; (3) Sealing: seals the gap between piston rings and the cylinder wall to prevent gas leakage.

Furthermore, it provides: (4) Cleaning and dispersion (detergency): washes away sludge and carbon generated inside the engine and disperses them in the oil; and (5) Rust (corrosion) prevention: coats metal surfaces with an oil film to prevent rust caused by acid and moisture (along with stress dispersion to cushion impacts).

Engine oil viscosity (thickness) is expressed by the SAE viscosity classification. In multigrade oils such as 5W-30 or 0W-20, a smaller number before the W (Winter) indicates softer oil at low temperatures and better cold-start performance, while a larger number after the hyphen (30 or 20) indicates higher viscosity at high temperatures for better oil-film retention.

In addition, API quality classifications begin with S (such as SP) for gasoline engines and C (such as CK-4) for diesel engines.

Gear oil used in transmissions and differentials contains extreme-pressure (EP) additives because high pressure acts on gear tooth surfaces, and has larger viscosity numbers (such as 75W-90) than engine oil.

Furthermore, greases (semi-solid lubricants) are selected according to application: chassis grease, wheel bearing grease, and rubber grease (for brakes) that does not attack rubber.

Functions and Standards of Engine Oil, Gear Oil, and Grease

Key points


  • The 5 major functions of engine oil are Lubrication, Cooling, Sealing, Cleaning/dispersion, and Rust prevention (plus stress dispersion)

  • In SAE viscosity rating 5W-30, W stands for Winter; a smaller number before W gives better low-temperature starting, and a larger second number gives higher high-temperature viscosity

  • For rubber brake parts (cups and boots), use brake rubber grease that does not swell rubber rather than mineral-oil-based grease
WordMeaning
Five major functions of engine oil (Lubrication, cooling, sealing, cleaning/dispersion, and rust prevention)
SAE viscosity classification (multigrade oil) (Viscosity grading system such as 5W-30 or 0W-20)
Extreme-pressure (EP) additive (Additive in gear oil that prevents metal seizure under heavy tooth loads)
Rubber grease (Non-mineral grease safe for rubber brake cups and boots)

Brake Fluid and LLC (Long Life Coolant)

Brake fluid (DOT3, DOT4, etc.) used in hydraulic brakes is a glycol-ether-based non-mineral liquid. It has a high boiling point and does not deteriorate rubber or metal, but has the major characteristic of easily absorbing moisture from the air (high hygroscopicity).

When brake fluid absorbs moisture, its boiling point drops significantly, making it prone to boiling during downhill braking and generating air bubbles—causing vapor lock.

Therefore, keep the brake fluid container tightly capped during storage and replace the fluid periodically (such as every 2 years at vehicle inspection). Also, because brake fluid attacks paint, wash it off immediately with water if spilled on the body, and never mix mineral oil (such as engine oil) as it causes rubber cups to swell.

LLC (Long Life Coolant) added to cooling water consists mainly of ethylene glycol mixed with rust inhibitors and anti-foaming agents. It provides an antifreeze effect that prevents coolant from freezing in winter and cracking the engine block or radiator, and an anti-rust effect that prevents corrosion in coolant passages.

LLC is mixed with soft water (tap water or purified water) to adjust the concentration (typically 30~60%) according to the region's lowest temperature. Higher concentration lowers the freezing temperature, but exceeding 60% actually makes it freeze more easily, so it is used within the proper 30~60% range. Required undiluted LLC volume is calculated by: Total cooling system capacity × LLC concentration (%).

Key points


  • Brake fluid (glycol-based) is hygroscopic; absorbing moisture lowers its boiling point and causes vapor lock, so periodic replacement is necessary

  • Contamination of brake fluid with mineral oil (engine oil, etc.) swells rubber cups and causes leaks, and brake fluid on paint strips the coating so wash it off immediately with water

  • LLC (mainly ethylene glycol) prevents coolant freezing, rust, and foaming in the cooling system, and is used at a concentration of 30~60%

  • Example: In an engine with a total coolant capacity of 6.0 L, to achieve a 40% LLC concentration, required undiluted LLC = 6.0 × 0.40 = 2.4 L (water = 6.0 - 2.4 = 3.6 L)

  • Example: When a cooling system with a total capacity of 8.0 L contains 2.4 L of undiluted LLC, the LLC concentration = (2.4 / 8.0) × 100 = 30%
WordMeaning
Brake fluid (Glycol-based hydraulic fluid (DOT3/DOT4) with a high boiling point)
Hygroscopicity (moisture absorption) (Property of brake fluid absorbing atmospheric moisture, lowering its boiling point)
LLC (Long Life Coolant) (Antifreeze and anti-rust coolant concentrate)
Ethylene glycol (Primary chemical ingredient in LLC)

Body and Frame Structure (Monocoque, Collision Safety) and Painting

Automobile body structures are broadly divided into frame-type structures and monocoque bodies (frameless structures). Frame-type structures (such as ladder frames) used in trucks and cross-country 4WD vehicles mount the body on a rigid ladder-shaped frame, making them strong against heavy loads and rough-road twisting.

On the other hand, the monocoque body (stressed-skin structure)—mainstream in passenger cars—integrates the frame and body so the roof, pillars, floor, and outer panels share loads together like a shell. It is lightweight, has high torsional and bending rigidity, and allows a spacious cabin.

Modern collision-safety bodies place high-tensile steel sheets in optimal locations. In a collision, the front and rear sections such as the engine compartment are designed as crushable zones that deform easily to absorb impact energy, while the passenger cabin forms a rigid safety zone (high-rigidity cabin) that resists deformation.

Additionally, body painting is performed for rust (corrosion) prevention of metal and for aesthetics and surface protection.

Basically, automotive paint has a 3-coat structure: (1) Undercoat (primer / electrodeposition coat) providing adhesion to steel and rust prevention -> (2) Intermediate coat (surfacer) filling minor unevenness and improving topcoat adhesion -> (3) Topcoat providing color, gloss, and weather resistance.

Body and Frame Structure (Monocoque, Collision Safety) and Painting

Key points


  • A monocoque body integrates the frame and body to absorb external forces across the entire shell, making it lightweight and highly rigid for passenger cars

  • In a collision-safety body, front and rear crushable zones deform to absorb impact energy while a high-rigidity cabin protects passenger survival space

  • Body painting is applied in order: Undercoat (primer: rust prevention/adhesion) -> Intermediate coat (surfacer: surface prep) -> Topcoat (color, gloss, weather resistance)
WordMeaning
Monocoque body (Unitized frame-and-body shell structure used in most passenger cars)
Crushable zone (Deformable front/rear body sections that absorb crash energy)
High-tensile steel sheet (Strong, lightweight steel used to reinforce collision-safety bodies)
Primer, surfacer, and topcoat (The three sequential layers of automotive body paint)

Workshop Safety and Hygiene, and Jack / Lift Operations

The foundation of safety and quality in a maintenance shop is the 5S activity: Seiri (Sort: discard unnecessary items), Seiton (Set in order: keep needed items in designated places for quick retrieval), Seiso (Shine: clean up trash and oil stains on the floor), Seiketsu (Standardize: maintain Sort, Set in order, and Shine), and Shitsuke (Sustain: build the habit of following safety rules).

Wear properly fitted work clothes with snug cuffs and hems, and remove belt buckles, watches, and rings so they do not scratch vehicle bodies or get caught in rotating parts. Also, when starting an engine indoors, always attach an exhaust duct (hose) and ventilate the area to prevent poisoning from colorless, odorless, highly toxic carbon monoxide (CO) in exhaust gas.

When lifting a vehicle with a garage jack (jacking up), work on a flat, hard floor, always place wheel chocks (stoppers) against the remaining grounded tires, and position the jack accurately on the manufacturer-specified jack-up point.

When working underneath a raised vehicle, working while supported only by a hydraulic jack is strictly prohibited due to the danger of the vehicle falling.

Always place rigid racks (jack stands) under the specified support points to hold the vehicle before working underneath. Likewise, when using a two-post lift, pause once the tires are slightly off the ground and shake the vehicle to confirm stability before raising it to the working height.

Workshop Safety and Hygiene, and Jack / Lift Operations

Key points


  • When working indoors with the engine running, always provide sufficient ventilation to prevent carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning

  • When working under a jacked-up vehicle, never rely on the jack alone; always support the body with rigid racks (jack stands) and chock the grounded wheels

  • When lifting a vehicle on a lift, pause once the tires clear the floor slightly to check for support misalignment or instability before raising further
WordMeaning
5S (Seiri, Seiton, Seiso, Seiketsu, Shitsuke) (Five workplace organization principles for safety and efficiency)
Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning (Deadly poisoning from colorless, odorless exhaust gas indoors)
Rigid rack (jack stand) (Mechanical stand required to support a raised vehicle safely)
Wheel chock (stopper) (Wedge placed against tires to prevent vehicle rolling during jacking)

Waste Oil, Waste Fluids, Fluorocarbons, and Environmental Protection Rules

Waste engine oil, waste brake fluid, waste LLC (antifreeze), waste batteries (dilute sulfuric acid and lead), and waste tires generated during automotive maintenance are strictly prohibited by law from being poured into sewers or soil or illegally dumped. Separate and store them in dedicated tanks or containers by type, and hand them over to licensed industrial waste disposal (or recycling) contractors.

Fluorocarbons (such as HFC-134a and HFO-1234yf) used as refrigerants in car air conditioners have a major impact on global warming if released into the atmosphere. Therefore, when disconnecting AC pipes for repair, never vent refrigerant into the air; always recover it using a dedicated fluorocarbon recovery machine.

Additionally, explosives (pyrotechnics) are used in the inflators (gas generators) of SRS airbags and seat belt pretensioners. Because mishandling can cause accidental deployment (explosion) and serious injury, follow the service manual by disconnecting the negative battery terminal and waiting the specified time before working, and always store a removed airbag module with its pad surface (deployment side) facing upward.

Hybrid vehicles (HVs) and electric vehicles (EVs) are equipped with high-voltage circuits of several hundred volts (identified by orange wiring harnesses). To prevent electric shock, wear insulated gloves when servicing high-voltage parts, pull out the service plug (safety plug), wait the specified time after shutting off power, and verify that voltage is 0 V before working.

Key points


  • Never pour waste oil, waste LLC, or waste brake fluid into sewers; store them separately, and recover car AC refrigerants with a recovery machine rather than venting to the air

  • When placing a removed airbag module down, always place it with the pad surface (front face) facing upward so the unit will not launch into the air if accidentally deployed

  • High-voltage wiring in HVs and EVs is identified by its orange color; wear insulated gloves and remove the service plug before maintenance
WordMeaning
Industrial waste (Regulated waste (oil, fluids, batteries) that must go to licensed processors)
Fluorocarbon recovery unit (Equipment required to capture AC refrigerant without atmospheric release)
SRS airbag (store pad-side up) (Always store removed airbag modules with the deployment pad facing upward)
High-voltage wiring (orange) and service plug (Orange harnesses denote HV circuits; wear insulated gloves to pull the service plug)

High-Frequency Exam Points and How to Remember Them

In the materials section, classic exam items are: Carbon steel becomes harder and stronger as carbon increases, but elongation and toughness decrease; Quenching = rapid cooling to harden, Tempering = imparts toughness; Aluminum alloy = about 1/3 the weight of iron with good thermal conductivity; Front windshield = laminated glass (tempered glass is False).

For fuels and lubricants, memorize thoroughly: Gasoline vapor is heavier than air and collects in low places; W in 5W-30 engine oil = Winter (smaller first number means better cold starting); Brake fluid = glycol-based, hygroscopic (boiling point drops when it absorbs water), damages paint; LLC = mainly ethylene glycol, provides antifreeze and anti-rust protection.

For body and painting, remember: Passenger car mainstream = unitized monocoque body; Collision safety = front and rear crushable zones absorb impact, passenger compartment is a high-rigidity cabin; Painting order = Undercoat (primer) -> Intermediate coat (surfacer) -> Topcoat.

For workshop safety, frequent exam points are: Never get under a vehicle supported only by a jack (always use rigid racks); Ventilate indoors when running an engine to prevent CO poisoning; Store a removed airbag with the pad facing upward; High-voltage wiring in HVs/EVs is orange.

Key points


  • Carbon steel = more carbon increases hardness but lowers toughness / Quenching = hardens, Tempering = adds toughness / Windshield = laminated glass

  • Gasoline vapor is heavier than air and pools on the floor / W in 5W-30 = Winter (smaller number = better cold starting)

  • Brake fluid absorbs moisture, lowering boiling point and causing vapor lock / LLC volume = Total coolant capacity × Concentration (%)

  • Monocoque body integrates frame and body / Paint order: Undercoat (primer) -> Intermediate coat (surfacer) -> Topcoat

  • Always support under-vehicle work with rigid racks / Place removed airbags pad-side up / HV high-voltage harnesses are orange
WordMeaning
Monocoque (stressed-skin structure) (Frameless body construction where the body shell carries structural loads)
Swelling (of rubber) (Deformation of brake rubber cups caused by mineral oil contamination)
Antifreeze and anti-rust action (The two primary functions of Long Life Coolant (LLC))

Materials, Fuels, Lubricants & Body

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