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Maintenance Testing Machines, Measuring Instruments, and Tools

Automobile Maintenance · 自動車整備分野 · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

Structure and Scale Reading of the Vernier Caliper

A vernier caliper is a measuring instrument that can measure 4 types of part dimensions with a single tool: outside diameter (external dimension), inside diameter (internal dimension), depth, and step. Outside diameter is measured using the outside jaws, inside diameter using the inside beaks, and depth using the depth bar.

The minimum reading value (least count) of a standard vernier caliper commonly used in automotive maintenance is 0.05 mm (1/20 mm). The main scale is graduated in 1 mm increments, while the vernier scale on the slider divides 19 mm (or 39 mm) of the main scale into 20 equal parts so that 0.05 mm increments can be read.

The procedure for reading a vernier caliper scale consists of two steps. Step 1: First, read the main scale graduation immediately to the left of the zero (0) line on the vernier scale in 1 mm increments (whole mm).

Step 2: Next, find where a graduation line on the vernier scale aligns in a straight line with a graduation line on the main scale, and read the vernier scale value at that position in 0.05 mm increments (decimal mm). Finally, add the main scale value from Step 1 and the vernier scale value from Step 2 together.

Structure and Scale Reading of the Vernier Caliper

Key points


  • A single vernier caliper can measure outside diameter, inside diameter, depth, and step, and its typical minimum reading is 0.05 mm

  • How to read: (1) Read the main scale graduation just to the left of the vernier 0 line (1 mm unit) -> (2) Read the vernier graduation aligned with the main scale (0.05 mm unit) and add them

  • Hold the object perpendicular to the jaws as close to the base (near the main scale) as possible rather than at the tips, and read the scale from directly in front

  • Example: When the vernier 0 line is between 46 mm and 47 mm on the main scale and the 4.5 (0.45 mm) vernier line aligns with the main scale, measured value = 46 + 0.45 = 46.45 mm

  • Example: When the vernier 0 line is slightly past 12 mm on the main scale and the 3.0 (0.30 mm) vernier line aligns with the main scale, measured value = 12 + 0.30 = 12.30 mm
WordMeaning
Vernier caliper (Measures outside diameter, inside diameter, depth, and step to 0.05 mm)
Main scale and vernier scale (The main scale reads 1 mm units and the vernier scale reads 0.05 mm units)
Depth bar (Bar extending from the end of the caliper used to measure hole or groove depth)
Minimum reading value (0.05 mm) (Smallest measurement increment on a standard vernier caliper)

How to Use and Read a Micrometer

An outside micrometer is a precision measuring instrument that measures piston outside diameter, crank journal diameter, or brake disc thickness in 0.01 mm (1/100 mm) increments. Micrometers are divided by measurement range, such as 0~25 mm, 25~50 mm, and 50~75 mm.

Before use, always clean the measuring faces of the anvil and spindle; for a 0~25 mm micrometer, bring both faces directly together, and for 25 mm or larger, place a standard test bar between them to perform a zero-point check (zero adjustment).

When bringing the spindle into contact with the workpiece, turn the ratchet stop until it clicks idly (2 to 3 clicks) to ensure a constant measuring pressure.

In the scale structure, the fixed sleeve has 1 mm graduations above the datum line and 0.5 mm half-graduations below it, while the rotating thimble has graduations dividing 0.5 mm into 50 equal parts around its circumference (1 graduation = 0.01 mm).

The reading procedure has 3 steps. Step 1: Read the 1 mm increment on the upper scale of the sleeve.

Step 2: Check whether the 0.5 mm sub-graduation line on the lower side of the sleeve is visible (+0.50 mm if visible, 0.00 mm if hidden). Step 3: Read the thimble graduation that aligns with the horizontal datum line of the sleeve in 0.01 mm increments, and add all values together.

Key points


  • The minimum graduation of a micrometer is 0.01 mm; always check the zero point with a test bar before use, and turn the ratchet stop during measurement to keep measuring pressure constant

  • How to read: (1) Upper sleeve scale (1 mm) + (2) Lower sleeve scale (0.50 mm if the 0.5 mm line is visible) + (3) Thimble scale (0.01 mm)

  • Overlooking the 0.5 mm graduation line on the lower sleeve is the most common mistake on the exam, so always check it carefully

  • Example: With a 0~25 mm micrometer, if the upper sleeve reads 5 mm, the lower 0.5 mm line is visible, and the thimble points to 35 (0.35 mm), measured value = 5 + 0.50 + 0.35 = 5.85 mm

  • Example: With a 50~75 mm micrometer, if the sleeve reads 12.0 mm (lower 0.5 mm line not visible) and the thimble reads 18 (0.18 mm), measured value = 50 + 12.0 + 0.18 = 62.18 mm
WordMeaning
Outside micrometer (Precision tool measuring external dimensions in 0.01 mm increments)
Sleeve and thimble (The fixed barrel (sleeve) and rotating barrel (thimble) containing the scale markings)
Ratchet stop (Knob at the end of the micrometer that limits and equalizes spindle contact pressure)
Standard bar (test bar) (Reference rod used for zero-point calibration on micrometers of 25 mm or larger)

Reading a Dial Gauge and Calculating Shaft Bend

A dial gauge is a measuring instrument that magnifies slight vertical movements of the contact plunger (spindle) through gears into pointer rotation. Fixed on a magnetic stand, it measures shaft bend (runout), disc rotor runout, gear backlash (tooth clearance), and axial play (thrust clearance).

The dial face has an inner short hand (1 graduation = 1 mm) and an outer long hand (1 graduation = 0.01 mm, 1 revolution = 1.00 mm). Always place the spindle perpendicular (90 degrees) to the surface being measured, and rotate the outer bezel to align the long hand with 0 before starting measurement.

When a shaft is placed on V-blocks, a dial gauge is applied to its center, and the shaft is slowly rotated 1 full turn, the difference between the maximum and minimum readings of the long hand is called runout (total indicator reading).

Here lies a super-important rule for the exam. When a shaft is bent away from its center axis by the amount of bend, rotating it 1 turn causes the gauge pointer to deflect both upward and downward, making total runout twice the actual bend. Therefore, always divide by two: Shaft bend = Runout (maximum difference) / 2.

Reading a Dial Gauge and Calculating Shaft Bend

Key points


  • On a dial gauge, 1 graduation of the long hand is 0.01 mm (1 turn = 1 mm) and 1 graduation of the short hand is 1 mm; apply the spindle perpendicular (90 degrees) to the measured surface

  • When rotating a shaft 1 turn on V-blocks, calculate using: Shaft bend = Dial gauge runout (Maximum value - Minimum value) / 2

  • Read disc rotor runout or flywheel face runout directly as runout (maximum difference), and divide by 2 when asked for the bend of a shaft

  • Example: When a shaft on V-blocks is rotated 1 turn and the dial gauge pointer moves from 0 mm to 0.06 mm, the runout is 0.06 mm and the shaft bend is 0.06 / 2 = 0.03 mm

  • Example: When the minimum pointer reading is -0.02 mm and the maximum reading is +0.08 mm, runout = 0.08 - (-0.02) = 0.10 mm, and shaft bend = 0.10 / 2 = 0.05 mm
WordMeaning
Dial gauge (Precision indicator measuring runout, backlash, and play in 0.01 mm increments)
V-blocks and surface plate (Precision supports used to hold cylindrical shafts while measuring runout)
Runout and bend (Shaft bend is always half of the total runout measured on V-blocks)
Backlash (Clearance between meshing gear teeth measured with a dial gauge)

How to Use a Circuit Tester and Precautions

A circuit tester (multimeter) is a testing instrument that measures direct current voltage (DCV), alternating current voltage (ACV), resistance (Ω: ohms) / continuity, and direct current (DCA) in electrical circuits. Insert the red test lead into the positive (+) terminal and the black test lead into the negative (- / COM) terminal.

(1) When measuring DC voltage (DCV): Set the rotary switch to a DCV range one step higher than the expected voltage (such as the 20 V or 50 V range for a 12 V battery). Connect the tester in parallel with the part to be measured, touching the red lead to the positive side and the black lead to the negative (body ground) side.

(2) When measuring resistance (Ω) or continuity: Because the tester sends a weak current from its internal battery to measure resistance, always turn the circuit switch OFF or disconnect the connector so measurement is performed with no voltage applied. Applying the resistance range to a live circuit will blow the tester fuse or damage its internals.

Furthermore, when measuring resistance (Ω) with an analog circuit tester, before measuring and every time you change the range, touch (short) the tips of the red and black test leads together and perform 0 Ω adjustment (zero-point adjustment) so the pointer reads 0 Ω. Note that when measuring current (DCA), connect the tester in series with the circuit.

Key points


  • For voltage (DCV) measurement, select a range higher than the expected voltage and connect the red (+) and black (-) leads in parallel with the circuit (connect in series for current measurement)

  • For resistance (Ω) measurement, always turn OFF circuit power (disconnect the connector) to measure with no voltage applied and prevent damaging the tester

  • When measuring resistance (Ω) with an analog tester, touch the red and black leads together to perform 0 Ω adjustment before measurement and whenever changing the range
WordMeaning
Circuit tester (multimeter) (Instrument for measuring voltage, resistance, continuity, and current)
DC voltage (DCV) and resistance (Ω) (DCV is measured in parallel on a live circuit; Ω is measured with power OFF)
0 Ω adjustment (zero adjustment) (Calibrating an analog ohmmeter by shorting the leads before measuring resistance)
Continuity check (Testing whether an electrical path is complete or has an open circuit)

Thickness Gauge, Plastigage, and Special-Purpose Testers

A thickness gauge (feeler gauge) is a measuring tool consisting of a bundle of thin steel blades (leaves) of precise thicknesses.

It is used to measure engine valve clearance, piston ring end gap, spark plug gap, and—when combined with a precision straight edge—the flatness (warpage) of the cylinder head lower surface.

Plastigage is a thin, soft plastic thread gauge. By placing it on a crankshaft journal or crankpin, tightening the bearing cap to the specified torque, removing the cap again, and comparing the crushed width of the plastic strip against its dedicated scale, you measure the bearing oil clearance.

A compression gauge is a tester that measures engine compression pressure. After warming up the engine, remove the spark plugs from all cylinders, cut off fuel injection, attach the gauge to a spark plug hole, fully depress the accelerator pedal (wide-open throttle), and crank the engine with the starter at the specified speed to measure.

Additionally, a battery hydrometer draws electrolyte into a glass tube to read the scale on the internal float.

When doing so, read the horizontal liquid level (bottom of the meniscus) straight from the side at eye level, rather than the outer edge raised by surface tension. A timing light flashes a strobe in sync with the #1 cylinder ignition signal to illuminate the timing marks on the crank pulley and check ignition timing.

Key points


  • A thickness gauge measures valve clearance and piston ring end gap, and is used with a straight edge to measure cylinder head flatness (warpage)

  • Plastigage measures crankshaft bearing oil clearance from the crushed width of the plastic strip after tightening the bearing cap to specified torque

  • When measuring compression pressure with a compression gauge, warm up the engine, remove all spark plugs, hold the throttle valve wide open, and crank with the starter
WordMeaning
Thickness gauge (feeler gauge) (Calibrated metal strips used to measure narrow gaps and clearances)
Straight edge (Precision flat bar used with a thickness gauge to check cylinder head warpage)
Plastigage (Deformable plastic thread used to measure bearing oil clearance)
Compression gauge (Pressure gauge threaded into the spark plug hole to test cylinder compression)
Timing light (Strobe light synchronized with cylinder #1 ignition to check ignition timing marks)

Torque Wrench and Tightening Torque Calculation

A torque wrench is a measuring tool used to accurately tighten critical bolts and nuts—such as cylinder head bolts and wheel nuts—to their specified tightening torque (rotational force).

Common types include the plate (beam) type, where torque is read on a pointer scale, and the preset (click) type, which alerts the user with a click sound and feel when the set torque is reached.

Torque (T) is defined as Distance from the bolt center (lever arm length L) × Force applied at a right angle (F), and uses the SI unit N·m (newton-meter).

For example, applying a force of 100 N at a right angle to a wrench 0.5 m long produces a tightening torque of 100 × 0.5 = 50 N·m (the old unit 1 kgf·m is approximately 9.8 N·m).

When using a torque wrench, first perform temporary snug tightening with a socket wrench, and use the torque wrench only for final tightening. Using a torque wrench to loosen tightly seized bolts or extending the handle with a pipe is strictly prohibited, as it ruins accuracy or damages the tool.

Furthermore, leaving a preset-type torque wrench wound up after use causes the internal spring to fatigue and lose accuracy; therefore, always return the scale to its lowest torque setting before storing (do not loosen it below the minimum scale range).

Torque Wrench and Tightening Torque Calculation

Key points


  • Torque T(N·m) = Force F(N) × Distance from center L(m), and 1 kgf·m is approximately 9.8 N·m (roughly 10 N·m)

  • Use a torque wrench only for final tightening, never for loosening bolts (return a preset torque wrench to its minimum scale setting for storage after use)

  • Example: When a force of 250 N is applied perpendicular to a torque wrench with an effective length (to the grip center) of 0.4 m, tightening torque T = 250 × 0.4 = 100 N·m

  • Example: When tightening a bolt with a specified torque of 60 N·m using a torque wrench with an effective length of 0.3 m, required force F = 60 / 0.3 = 200 N
WordMeaning
Torque wrench (Precision wrench used to apply a specific torque to a fastener)
Plate (beam) type and preset (click) type (Two main types of torque wrenches used in automotive maintenance)
N·m (newton-meter) (SI unit of torque equal to force in newtons multiplied by lever length in meters)
Temporary tightening and final tightening (Snugging fasteners first with a standard wrench before final torqueing)

Handling General Hand Tools and Power Tools (Grinder and Impact Wrench)

Among hand tools for turning bolts and nuts, box-end wrenches and socket wrenches surround the entire circumference of the hex head, making them least likely to slip and best suited for applying high torque. Open-end wrenches are used in tight spaces or for quick turning, but are unsuitable for heavy force because they easily round off bolt corners.

With an adjustable wrench (monkey wrench), turn the worm gear so the jaws fit the bolt snugly without play, and pull the wrench in the direction that applies force to the stronger fixed jaw (pulling toward yourself) rather than the weaker movable jaw.

In addition, wrenches should in principle be pulled toward yourself, because pushing a wrench can cause you to strike your knuckles and injure yourself if the wrench slips off.

An air impact wrench driven by compressed air must always be fitted with a black, impact-resistant thick-walled impact socket. Using a chrome-plated thin-walled hand-tool socket on an impact wrench is dangerous because it can shatter and fly apart.

When using a bench grinder, always wear safety glasses and never wear cotton work gloves, which could get caught and pulled into the rotating wheel. Adjust the gap between the grinding wheel and the work rest to within 1~3 mm, and never grind on the side face of the wheel as it can cause the wheel to burst.

Key points


  • Use box-end or socket wrenches when applying large torque, and in principle pull wrenches toward yourself (pull an adjustable wrench toward the fixed jaw side)

  • Always use dedicated impact sockets with an air impact wrench, and verify final tightening with a torque wrench

  • When operating a bench grinder, wear safety glasses; wearing gloves and grinding on the side of the wheel are strictly prohibited, and keep the work rest gap within 1~3 mm
WordMeaning
Box-end wrench and socket wrench (Wrenches that fully enclose the fastener head for high-torque work)
Adjustable wrench (monkey wrench) (Eliminate jaw play and turn so load is applied to the fixed jaw)
Air impact wrench (Pneumatic wrench that must only be used with thick black impact sockets)
Bench grinder (Wear safety goggles, never wear gloves, and keep the work rest gap at 1~3 mm)

High-Frequency Exam Points and How to Remember Them

In both the practical and written exams, the most important questions involve reading the vernier caliper, micrometer, and dial gauge.

Always point and verify the reading steps: Vernier caliper = Main scale left of vernier 0 line (1 mm) + Vernier line aligned with main scale (0.05 mm); Micrometer = Upper sleeve (1 mm) + Lower sleeve (+0.50 mm if 0.5 mm line is visible) + Thimble (0.01 mm).

When rotating a shaft 1 turn on V-blocks with a dial gauge: Bend = Runout / 2. Read the question carefully to see whether it asks for runout or bend, and if it asks for bend, always divide by 2.

For the circuit tester, three rules appear frequently: Measure voltage (DCV) in parallel with the circuit; Measure current (DCA) in series with the circuit; Measure resistance (Ω) with power OFF (connector unplugged) after performing 0 Ω adjustment.

For tool safety rules, memorize this set: Torque T(N·m) is the product of force F(N) and length L(m); Pull an adjustable wrench toward the fixed jaw; For a bench grinder, wear safety glasses, no gloves, no side-wheel grinding, and work rest gap 1~3 mm.

Key points


  • Vernier caliper (0.05 mm min.) measures outside diameter, inside diameter, depth, and step; read from the vernier 0 position and aligned graduation

  • Micrometer (0.01 mm min.) requires a zero check and ratchet stop; be careful not to overlook the 0.5 mm line on the lower sleeve

  • Dial gauge (0.01 mm min.) requires the spindle to be perpendicular, and shaft bend is calculated by: Shaft bend = Runout / 2

  • Measure voltage in parallel with a circuit tester, and measure resistance (Ω) with power OFF and 0 Ω adjustment

  • Remove all plugs and open throttle fully for compression testing / Wear safety glasses, no gloves, and no side grinding on a bench grinder
WordMeaning
Minimum graduation (least count) (0.05 mm for standard vernier calipers; 0.01 mm for micrometers and dial gauges)
Zero-point check (Mandatory calibration check before using precision measuring instruments)
Work rest (grinder support) (Maintain a 1~3 mm gap between the work rest and grinding wheel)

Testers, Measuring Instruments & Tools

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