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Work Study (IE), Process Organization & Line Balancing (Process Analysis, Standard Time, Line Efficiency)

Production Management Planning Grade 3 生産管理プランニング (BC検定) · ビジネス・キャリア検定 生産管理プランニング3級 · Written by Tokutei Pass based on the official study texts; not copied verbatim.

1. System of IE (Industrial Engineering) (Taylor & Gilbreth, 3Ss, ECRS, 5W1H)

IE (Industrial Engineering / Work Study) is a technology that scientifically analyzes shop-floor operations and processes to eliminate waste and establish the best work methods and standard times. IE consists of two pillars: Method Study (improving how work is done) and Work Measurement (measuring work time).

Historically, F.W. Taylor in the United States founded Time Study using a stopwatch (task management / Scientific Management), while Frank and Lillian Gilbreth founded Motion Study (Therblig analysis) from observing bricklaying operations.

The fundamental principles for rationalizing management and production—the 3Ss of Management—are Simplification (reducing complex tasks and parts), Standardization (unifying rules and specifications), and Specialization (concentrating functions in specific areas) (distinguished from the shop-floor 3Ss: Sort, Set in order, Shine).

When improving processes and operations, questions are posed using 5W1H (Why, What, Where, When, Who, How) and examined in the order of the 4 Principles of ECRS: (1) Eliminate (stop doing it) → (2) Combine (merge together) → (3) Rearrange (change the sequence) → (4) Simplify (make it easier).

Key points


  • Two major origins of IE: Taylor = Time Study (Scientific Management), Gilbreth = Motion Study (Therblig analysis).

  • 3Ss of rationalization (management): Simplification, Standardization, Specialization.

  • Four principles of improvement (ECRS): (1) Eliminate (E: can it be removed?) → (2) Combine (C: can it be done together?) → (3) Rearrange (R: can the order be changed?) → (4) Simplify (S: can it be made easier?).
WordMeaning
Taylor's Time Study and Gilbreth's Motion Study
3Ss of Management (Simplification, Standardization, Specialization)
ECRS Principles of Improvement (Eliminate, Combine, Rearrange, Simplify) and 5W1H

2. Method Study (1): Motion Analysis (3 Categories of 18 Basic Therbligs and 4 Principles of Motion Economy)

Motion analysis is a method of analyzing fine movements of a worker's hands, feet, and eyes to eliminate wasteful motions and fatigue. In Therblig analysis devised by Gilbreth, human work motions are broken down into 18 basic motions (therbligs) and classified into Category 1 through Category 3.

Category 1 (Effective motions) are motions directly necessary to advance the work (transport empty, grasp, transport loaded, assemble, use, release load, etc.), which are simplified by shortening motion distances.

Category 2 (Auxiliary / delaying motions) are mental or search motions that delay Category 1—such as search, select, plan/think, position, and inspect—which are eliminated as much as possible through fixed-location storage and jigs. Category 3 (Non-effective / wasteful motions) are motions that do not advance the work at all—such as hold (holding an object with one hand), avoidable/unavoidable delay, and rest—which must be thoroughly eliminated using holding jigs.

Furthermore, guidelines for achieving low-fatigue, efficient motion are the Principles of Motion Economy (4 major principles): (1) Use both hands simultaneously and symmetrically, (2) Minimize the number of basic motions and shorten travel distance, (3) Use gravity and mechanical power for effortless motion, and (4) Place materials and tools in fixed locations within the normal working area.

Key points


  • Therblig Category 1 = Effective motions necessary to perform work (grasp, transport, assemble, use, etc.).

  • Category 2 = Mental/search motions that delay work (search, select, position, etc.) → Eliminate via fixed locations and jigs.

  • Category 3 = Non-effective motions that do not advance work at all (hold, waiting/delay, etc.) → Top priority for elimination.

  • Four Principles of Motion Economy: (1) Simultaneous use of both hands (no one-hand holding), (2) Fewer motions & shortest distance, (3) Effortless motion (use gravity/jigs), (4) Fixed locations for materials and tools.
WordMeaning
Therblig Analysis (18 basic motions: Category 1, Category 2, Category 3)
Four Principles of Motion Economy and Normal working area
PTS (Predetermined Time Standard) method and Micromotion study

3. Method Study (2): Process Analysis and JIS Process Chart Symbols (Operation, Transport, Storage vs Delay, Inspection, Auxiliary Symbols)

Process analysis charts and improves the overall flow of processes from raw material input to finished product using JIS standard (JIS Z 8206) Process Chart Symbols. Depending on the subject, there are Product process analysis (following material flow), Operator process analysis (following worker movement), and Combined work analysis (Man-Machine chart analyzing human-machine coordination).

There are 6 basic JIS chart symbols across 4 elements: (1) Operation (processing/assembly changing shape or properties) is a large circle ○; (2) Transport (changing location) is an arrow ⇨ or a small circle ○.

(3) Retention (non-movement) is distinguished into two symbols: Storage (planned keeping in a warehouse, etc.) is an inverted triangle ▽, whereas Delay (unplanned waiting between processes) is a D-shape D. (4) Inspection is also divided into two: Quantity inspection (measuring count or weight) is a square □, and Quality inspection (judging good vs defective) is a diamond ◇.

There are also combined symbols (e.g., primarily performing quality inspection while also checking quantity is drawn with an outer diamond ◇ and inner square □) and Auxiliary symbols indicating transport means by text. Exams frequently test '台' (handcart / truck transport) and '操重' (crane / hoist lifting transport).

3. Method Study (2): Process Analysis and JIS Process Chart Symbols (Operation, Transport, Storage vs Delay, Inspection, Auxiliary Symbols)

Key points


  • Basic JIS process chart symbols: Operation = ○, Transport = ⇨ (or small ○), Storage (planned storage) = ▽, Delay (unplanned waiting) = D, Quantity inspection = □, Quality inspection = ◇.

  • Combined symbol rule: When performing two functions simultaneously, draw the primary process symbol on the outside and the secondary process symbol on the inside.

  • Auxiliary transport symbols: 人 (manual), 台 (cart / truck), コン (conveyor), 操重 (crane / hoist), 自 (gravity chute drop).
WordMeaning
Product process analysis, Operator process analysis, Combined work analysis
JIS process chart symbols (Operation ○, Transport ⇨, Storage ▽, Delay D, Quantity □, Quality ◇)
Auxiliary symbols (台: Cart/Truck, 操重: Crane/Hoist)

4. Work Measurement (1): Operating Analysis (Continuous Observation vs Work Sampling & Required Observations N)

Operating analysis (work sampling / ratio delay study) investigates the operating ratio and time composition proportions—what percentage of daily working hours workers or machines spend on main productive work (operating) versus setup, allowances, and waiting (non-operating).

Methods include Continuous observation (one observer stays with the subject continuously recording over a long period) and Work Sampling (instantaneous observation: patrolling the shop at random times, counting only the frequency of operating vs non-operating states at those instants, and statistically estimating the operating ratio via the binomial distribution).

Work Sampling has the advantages that a single observer can survey many workers or machines simultaneously, no stopwatch is needed, and subjects feel no psychological pressure.

At a 95% confidence level (normal distribution factor of 2), where p is the occurrence ratio (operating ratio) of the target event and E is the allowable Absolute Error, the required number of observations N is calculated as: N = 4 × p × (1 - p) ÷ E² (when allowable Relative Error S is given, substituting E = S × p yields N = 4 × (1 - p) ÷ (S² × p)).

Key points


  • Work Sampling (instantaneous observation) = Statistically estimates operating and allowance ratios from instantaneous observation counts at random times (one person can observe many subjects simultaneously).

  • Required observations N (95% confidence, absolute error E): N = 4 × p × (1 - p) ÷ E².

  • Required observations N (95% confidence, relative error S): N = 4 × (1 - p) ÷ (S² × p) (since E = S × p).

  • Example: Out of 500 total observations, 300 are operating → Estimated operating ratio p = 300 ÷ 500 = 0.60 (60%). To estimate p = 0.60 at 95% confidence within an allowable absolute error E = 0.04 (4%), required observations N = 4 × 0.60 × (1 - 0.60) ÷ (0.04)² = 0.96 ÷ 0.0016 = 600 observations
WordMeaning
Operating analysis (Continuous observation method and Work Sampling method)
Required observations N, Absolute error E, and Relative error S
Estimation of operating ratio and allowance ratio

5. Work Measurement (2): 4M Conditions of Time Study and Standard Time (ST: Rating, External vs Internal Allowance Methods)

Standard Time (ST) is the time required for a qualified, well-trained worker to complete one unit of work at a standard work pace under specified working conditions.

As a prerequisite for conducting time study, the 4M Conditions must be standardized: (1) Material used, (2) Machine / equipment / jigs used, (3) working procedure or Method, and (4) Man (worker qualifications and skill level) (Note: exam questions frequently include a trap option listing Morale as one of the 4M conditions).

Standard Time is the sum of Net Time (normal time: main operation time + setup time) and Allowance Time (personal allowance, fatigue allowance, operation allowance, shop allowance). Multiplying the Observed Time measured by stopwatch by a Rating Factor (ratio correcting the observed pace to standard pace) gives the Net Time.

To calculate Standard Time from Net Time, there are two methods: the External Allowance Method (where allowance ratio = allowance time ÷ net time) using ST = Net time × (1 + Allowance ratio); and the Internal Allowance Method (where allowance ratio = allowance time ÷ standard time) using ST = Net time ÷ (1 - Allowance ratio).

Key points


  • 4M Conditions required for work measurement (setting Standard Time) = Material, Machine, Method, and Man. Note: Morale is NOT included.

  • Net Time (Normal Time) = Observed Time × Rating Factor (e.g., × 1.10 for 110%).

  • Standard Time calculation: External method 'ST = Net time × (1 + Allowance ratio)', Internal method 'ST = Net time ÷ (1 - Allowance ratio)'.

  • Example: Observed time 15 min, rating factor 120% → Net time = 15 × 1.20 = 18 min. With a 10% allowance ratio, External method gives Standard Time = 18 × (1 + 0.10) = 19.8 min; Internal method gives Standard Time = 18 ÷ (1 - 0.10) = 20.0 min
WordMeaning
Standard Time (ST = Net time + Allowance time) and 4M Conditions
Rating (evaluating and adjusting work pace)
External allowance method, Internal allowance method, and Personal allowances (fatigue, personal needs)

6. 3 Steps of Process Organization (Process Design → Operation Design → Logistics & Layout Design) and Line Transfer Methods

Receiving product design drawings and building an efficient factory production process system—Process Organization—proceeds in a three-step sequence: (1) Process Design → (2) Operation (Job) Design → (3) Inter-process Logistics and Layout Design.

In (1) Process Design, engineers select required machining and assembly technologies from drawings and BOMs, deciding make-or-buy classifications, equipment to use, and processing sequences (process flow). Next, in (2) Operation Design, work elements are assigned to workstations (line balancing) and specific work procedures, jigs/tools, and standard times are set.

Then, in (3) Inter-process Logistics and Layout Design, transport methods between processes (material handling equipment) and the physical floor arrangement (layout) of machines, workbenches, and aisles are determined.

Item transfer methods on production lines include four types: (1) Manual transfer (pushing items by hand or roller conveyor to the next station upon finishing each task); (2) Conveyor stationary-work method (conveyor transports the item, which stops during the operation); (3) Conveyor moving-work method (working on the item while the conveyor moves at constant speed); and (4) Takt method (advancing items at all stations simultaneously by one station at fixed takt intervals).

Key points


  • Sequence of the 3 steps of Process Organization: (1) Process Design (deciding processing methods and sequence) → (2) Operation Design (deciding work content for each station/worker) → (3) Inter-process Logistics and Layout Design.

  • Line item transfer methods: Manual transfer, Conveyor stationary-work method, Conveyor moving-work method, and Takt method (intermittent simultaneous indexing).

  • Takt method = Moving work-in-process at all workstations simultaneously to the next process at every fixed cycle time (takt time).
WordMeaning
Three steps of Process Organization (Process Design → Operation Design → Logistics & Layout Design)
Conveyor stationary-work method and Conveyor moving-work method
Manual transfer method and Takt method

7. Calculating Cycle Time (Pitch Time) and Minimum Number of Workstations (Accounting for Defect Rate)

In line production, the time interval at which finished units emerge one by one from the final process (the maximum time allowed at each workstation) is called Cycle Time (CT: pitch time or takt time).

Basic cycle time is calculated as: Cycle Time CT = Daily (or period) available operating time ÷ Required production quantity. If a non-conforming (defect) rate r is expected on the line, the input quantity must equal required good units divided by the conforming rate (1 - r), so CT = Available operating time × (1 - Defect rate r) ÷ Required good units.

Dividing the sum of all elemental task times needed to complete one product (total work time ∑ti) by Cycle Time CT gives the Theoretical Minimum Number of Workstations (minimum number of processes) needed to achieve that production volume.

The formula is: Theoretical Minimum Workstations = Total work time ∑ti ÷ Cycle Time CT; if the division yields a decimal fraction, you must always round UP to the next whole integer number of stations.

7. Calculating Cycle Time (Pitch Time) and Minimum Number of Workstations (Accounting for Defect Rate)

Key points


  • Basic Cycle Time CT = Available operating time ÷ Required production volume.

  • Cycle Time accounting for defect rate r: CT = Available operating time × (1 - r) ÷ Required good units (because defects occur, the pitch per unit must be faster).

  • Theoretical Minimum Workstations = Total work time ÷ Cycle Time CT (always round any fraction UP).

  • Example: Daily operating time 450 min (27,000 sec), required daily good units 480, defect rate 4% (conforming rate 0.96) → Required input quantity = 480 ÷ 0.96 = 500 units, Cycle Time CT = 27,000 ÷ 500 = 54 sec/unit. If total work time per product is 240 sec, minimum stations = 240 ÷ 54 = 4.44... → Round up to 5 stations
WordMeaning
Cycle Time (CT), Pitch Time, Takt Time
Cycle Time calculation accounting for defect rate
Theoretical minimum number of workstations (rounding fractions up)

8. Line Balancing (Line Efficiency, Balance Loss) and Precedence Network Diagrams

Line Balancing is eliminating variations and equalizing the operation times assigned to each workstation. A bar chart arranging the operation times of each station side by side is called a Pitch Diagram, where the station with the longest operation time (the bottleneck station) determines the effective Cycle Time CT of the entire line.

Line Efficiency (line balance efficiency), which measures how well the line is balanced, is calculated as: Line Efficiency = Sum of station work times ∑ti ÷ (Number of stations n × Cycle Time CT (maximum station time)) × 100 (%).

The proportion of idle waiting loss—Balance Loss Rate (line balancing loss)—is 100% - Line Efficiency (or 1 - Line Efficiency); and the Team Allowance Ratio (ratio of total idle waiting time to total net work time) is calculated as: (n × CT - ∑ti) ÷ ∑ti.

In calculation problems assigning work elements from a Precedence Network Diagram (priority diagram) into a specified number of stations n, group the work elements so that station total times are as equal as possible without violating the arrow precedence relations; the Maximum Station Time among the grouped stations becomes the achievable Minimum Cycle Time.

8. Line Balancing (Line Efficiency, Balance Loss) and Precedence Network Diagrams

Key points


  • Line Efficiency = Total work time ∑ti ÷ (Number of stations n × Maximum station work time CT).

  • Balance Loss Rate = 1 - Line Efficiency = 1 - ∑ti ÷ (n × CT). Team Allowance Ratio = (n × CT - ∑ti) ÷ ∑ti.

  • Assignment using a Precedence Network Diagram = Allocate tasks while respecting precedence order so that the maximum station time (bottleneck) is minimized.

  • Example: Work times of 5 stations are 18 sec, 22 sec, 25 sec, 20 sec, 15 sec (total ∑ti = 100 sec, bottleneck CT = 25 sec) → Line Efficiency = 100 ÷ (5 × 25) = 100 ÷ 125 = 0.80 (80%), Balance Loss Rate = 100% - 80% = 20% (Team allowance ratio = (125 - 100) ÷ 100 = 25%)
WordMeaning
Line Balancing, Pitch Diagram, and Bottleneck process
Line Efficiency, Balance Loss Rate, and Team Allowance Ratio
Precedence Network Diagram (Priority diagram) and Work elements

Frequent Exam Points and How to Remember Them

In Chapter 4 (Questions 19 to 25), exams frequently test: Taylor = Time Study, Gilbreth = Motion Study (Therbligs); the 3Ss of management (Simplification, Standardization, Specialization); ECRS; and the 3 Therblig categories (Category 1 effective, Category 2 delaying like search, Category 3 non-effective like hold and wait).

In JIS process chart symbols, combinations distinguishing Storage (▽: planned storage) vs Delay (D: unplanned wait), Quantity inspection (□) vs Quality inspection (◇), and auxiliary symbols '台' (cart/truck) vs '操重' (crane/hoist) appear on nearly every exam.

In work measurement, master the trap on the 4M Conditions for time study (Material, Machine, Method, Man—note that Morale is NOT included), the required observations N in Work Sampling, and Standard Time calculations (rating, external vs internal allowance methods).

In process organization, make sure to score points on: the sequence (1) Process Design → (2) Operation Design → (3) Inter-process Logistics & Layout Design; Cycle Time accounting for defect rate and minimum stations (round up); Line Efficiency & Balance Loss; and finding the minimum Cycle Time from a precedence network diagram.

Key points


  • JIS process chart symbols: Operation ○, Transport ⇨, Storage ▽, Delay D, Quantity inspection □, Quality inspection ◇; auxiliary symbols '台 = cart', '操重 = crane/hoist'.

  • The 4M conditions of time study do NOT include Morale. Process organization follows the order: (1) Process Design → (2) Operation Design → (3) Logistics & Layout Design.

  • Three-part line calculation set: (1) Cycle time with defect rate & minimum stations, (2) Line efficiency & balance loss rate, (3) Minimum cycle time from a precedence network diagram.
WordMeaning
JIS Process Chart Symbols and Auxiliary Symbols (台, 操重)
4M Conditions of Work Measurement and Work Sampling
Line Efficiency, Balance Loss, and Precedence Network Diagram

Work Study (IE) & Line Balancing

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